AP Environmental Science Quarter 4 Vocab

Mineral

Naturally occurring inorganic solid with a specific chemical composition and crystalline structure. Examples include quartz, diamond, and calcite.

subsurface mining

involves extracting minerals from beneath the Earth's surface through tunnels and shafts, accessing valuable resources like coal, diamonds, and metals.

Overburden

The layer of material covering a mineral deposit that must be removed before accessing the desired resource.

open pit mining

A mining technique where minerals are extracted from the surface of the Earth, using large open pits instead of underground tunnels.

smelting

a process that extracts metal from its ore by heating it at high temperatures to separate the desired metal from impurities.

1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

Legislation passed to regulate surface mining of coal and protect the environment by enforcing land reclamation and water quality standards.

ore

A mineral or rock that contains valuable substances like metals, often extracted through mining for economic purposes.

acid mine drainage

the outflow of acidic water from metal mines, causing environmental harm by polluting rivers and harming aquatic life.

Quarries

Locations where large amounts of stone, minerals, or other materials are extracted for construction or industrial purposes.

Estimated Reserve

The amount of a resource that is anticipated to be economically feasible to extract based on current technology and economic conditions.

Tailings

the waste material left over after the extraction of desired resources from ore during mining operations. They can contain harmful chemicals and need proper disposal.

strip mining

Mining technique where layers of soil and rock are removed to expose mineral deposits. Can cause environmental damage and habitat destruction.

Bauxite

an ore that is the world's primary source of aluminum. It is a rock composed of aluminum hydroxides and iron, typically found in tropical or subtropical regions.

reclamation

Process of restoring land to its natural state after mining or industrial activity, aiming to mitigate environmental damage and promote sustainability.

proven reserve

The amount of a resource that can be extracted profitably with current technology and economic conditions.

slag

a byproduct of metal smelting processes, consisting of impurities separated from the metal. It can be used in construction and as a fertilizer.

1st law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed within a system.

2nd law of thermodynamics

in any energy transfer or transformation, there is always an increase in the total entropy of a closed system.

chain reaction

a sequence of events where a series of reactions triggers further reactions, creating a self-sustaining process.

peat

an organic matter made of decaying plant material in waterlogged environments. It forms when decomposition is slow due to acidic and anaerobic conditions.

closed system

does not exchange matter with surroundings. Energy can enter or leave, but matter cannot. Follows 1st law of thermodynamics.

open system

A system that interacts with its environment, allowing the exchange of both energy and matter across its boundaries.

fractional distillation

Separation technique used to separate a mixture of liquids with different boiling points by heating, vaporizing, and condensing them based on their boiling points.

scrubber

A device that removes pollutants or particles from a gas stream by trapping them in a liquid or solid material.

hydrogen fuel cell

Device that converts chemical energy from hydrogen into electricity, emitting only water and heat as byproducts.

Nuclear Fission

the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy.

Three mile island

Nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania where a partial meltdown occurred in 1979, causing concerns about nuclear safety and leading to changes in regulations.

Anthracite coal

a type of coal known for its high carbon content and low impurities, making it a valuable energy source with a high heat output.

Bituminous coal

a type of coal that is a soft, dense, black coal containing a tar-like substance called bitumen. It is commonly used for electricity generation and steel production.

lignite coal

A low-grade coal with high moisture content, found in vast reserves worldwide. It is used in power generation and produces high emissions.

geothermal

Energy derived from the heat of the Earth's interior, used for heating and electricity generation.

oil sands

a mixture of sand, water, clay, and bitumen found in large quantities in Alberta, Canada. They are a major source of oil production.

natural gas

a fossil fuel primarily composed of methane. It is a clean-burning energy source used for heating, electricity generation, and cooking.

energy efficiency

refers to using less energy to provide the same level of service, resulting in reduced energy waste and lower energy bills.

wind power

the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, through wind turbines. It is a renewable and sustainable energy source.

ionizing radiation

high-energy radiation that can remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, creating charged ions.

nuclear fusion

the process where two atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy in the process.

Background radiation

the low-level radiation constantly present in the environment from natural and human-made sources.

biomass

organic materials, such as plants and trees, that can be used to generate energy through processes like combustion or fermentation.

photovoltaic cell

Device that converts sunlight into electricity through the photovoltaic effect, generating renewable energy for various applications.

Chernobyl, Ukraine

Location of the 1986 nuclear disaster, releasing radioactive particles into the atmosphere. Led to health and environmental consequences.

control rod

device used in nuclear reactors to control the rate of fission reactions by absorbing neutrons.

Curie

A unit of measurement for radioactive decay equal to 37 billion disintegrations per second. Named after physicist Marie Curie.

Hoover Dam

A concrete arch-gravity dam on the Colorado River, bordering Arizona and Nevada. It provides hydroelectric power and water for irrigation.

Three Gorges Dam

A hydroelectric dam in China. Located on the Yangtze River. Largest power station in terms of installed capacity. Generates renewable energy

yucca mountain

a proposed deep geological repository for storing spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste in Nevada, USA.

Hydroelectric

generated by harnessing the energy of moving water to produce electricity, typically through dams or flowing rivers.

point source pollution

contamination that comes from a single identifiable source, like a pipe or a factory, making it easier to regulate and control.

PM₁₀ & PM_2.5

Particulate Matter (PM) 10 refers to inhalable particles smaller than 10 micrometers, while PM2.5 relates to fine inhalable particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers.

Nitrogen oxides

a group of highly reactive gases produced during combustion processes, contributing to air pollution and acid rain formation.

thermal inversion

Atmospheric condition where a layer of warm air traps cooler air near the ground, leading to air pollution buildup.

asbestos

Naturally occurring mineral used in insulation and construction. Inhalation can cause serious health issues like lung cancer and mesothelioma.

VOCs

volatile organic compounds released from various sources like paints and cleaning products. They can cause health issues and contribute to air pollution.

Aerosols

tiny particles suspended in the air, often released through human activities like spray cans or industrial processes, impacting air quality and climate.

nonpoint source pollution

Diffuse contamination from various sources, like runoff, making it challenging to pinpoint a single origin for the pollution.

criteria pollutants

six common air pollutants regulated by the EPA due to their impact on human health and the environment.

sulfer dioxide

a colorless gas with a pungent odor released from burning fossil fuels. It contributes to acid rain and respiratory issues.

industrial smog

a type of air pollution caused by the release of pollutants from industrial activities, leading to the formation of smog in urban areas.

acid deposition

Process where acidic pollutants are deposited on Earth's surface through rain, snow, or fog, causing environmental damage to ecosystems and infrastructure.

indoor air pollution

refers to the contamination of indoor air by harmful substances, such as smoke, mold, and chemicals, which can negatively impact human health.

primary pollutant

A pollutant emitted directly into the atmosphere, such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter, without undergoing any chemical changes.

sick building syndrome

Condition where occupants experience acute health effects linked to time spent in a particular building, often due to poor ventilation or indoor air quality.

Troposheric ozone

A harmful pollutant formed by the reaction of sunlight with pollutants like nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds.

carbon monoxide

Toxic gas produced by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. Binds to hemoglobin, reducing oxygen transport in the blood, leading to tissue hypoxia.

lead

A heavy metal known for its toxicity. Exposure can cause developmental issues, brain damage, and other health problems. Found in old paint, water pipes, and some consumer products.

photochemical smog

a type of air pollution that forms when sunlight reacts with pollutants like nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere.

Heat island effect

Urban areas trapping heat due to human activities, leading to higher temperatures compared to surrounding rural areas.

radon gas

Radioactive gas naturally produced from the decay of uranium in soil and rocks. It can seep into buildings, posing health risks when inhaled, potentially leading to lung cancer.

secondary pollutant

Pollutants formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving primary pollutants, sunlight, and other compounds.

Clean Air Act

• Legislation passed in 1970, amended in 1990

• Regulates air emissions from industries and vehicles

• Aims to protect public health and the environment

Bioacculmulation

the gradual build-up of substances in living organisms, often in fatty tissues, through repeated exposure in the environment.

Acute Effects (exposure)

refers to immediate health impacts following short-term contact with a substance, often lasting a short duration.

Chronic Effects (exposure)

Long-term consequences resulting from continuous or repeated exposure to a substance, often manifesting gradually over time.

Toxicology

Study of harmful effects of chemicals on living organisms, including symptoms, mechanisms of action, and treatments.

immune system

The body's defense system against infections and diseases, comprising white blood cells, antibodies, and other components to protect the body from harmful invaders.

threshold concentration

the minimum amount of a substance needed to produce a detectable response or effect in a system.

light pollution

the excessive, misdirected, or obtrusive artificial light that disrupts the natural darkness of night, affecting ecosystems, human health, and astronomical observations.

neurotoxin

A substance that damages nerve cells or disrupts the nervous system, leading to neurological disorders or even death.

teratogens

substances that can interfere with the development of an embryo or fetus, causing birth defects or developmental abnormalities.

PCBs

toxic chemicals once used in electrical equipment. They are harmful to humans and the environment, persisting in the environment for long periods.

Background Extinction

The ongoing, low-level extinction rate of species that occurs naturally due to factors like competition, predation, and environmental changes

Climate

The long-term pattern of temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation in an area, typically measured over decades or centuries.

extirpation

The complete removal or eradication of a species from a specific geographic area, but not its entire range.

carcinogens

Substances that can promote the formation of cancer in living tissues by initiating or promoting carcinogenesis.

biomagnification

Process where toxins accumulate in organisms as they move up the food chain, posing a threat to higher-level consumers.

dose-response curve

Graph showing the relationship between the dose of a drug or treatment and its effect on an organism. It helps determine the optimal dose for desired outcomes.

endocrine system

Collection of glands that produce hormones to regulate bodily functions and maintain homeostasis. Hormones are released into the bloodstream to target specific organs and tissues.

vector

An organism that transmits pathogens from one host to another. Examples include mosquitoes spreading malaria and ticks carrying Lyme disease.

leachate

Liquid formed from water passing through waste, containing dissolved and suspended materials. Commonly found in landfills and can be harmful to the environment.

love canal

a neighborhood in Niagara Falls, New York, where toxic waste was buried. It led to health issues and the creation of Superfund sites for cleanup.

noise pollution

excessive, displeasing, or disruptive noise that interferes with normal activities, causing harm to humans, animals, or the environment.

LD-50

the lethal dose of a substance that kills 50% of a population. It is a measure of a substance's toxicity and is commonly used in toxicology studies.

Albedo

The measure of the reflectivity of a surface, indicating how much sunlight is reflected without being absorbed.

Biophilia

The innate human tendency to connect with nature and other living beings, enhancing well-being and promoting conservation efforts.

Ecosystem Services

Benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems, including provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services.

weather

The state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place, including temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and other conditions.

dose

Amount of a substance administered at one time, usually in medication or radiation therapy. It can have therapeutic effects or cause harm depending on the quantity.

CERCLA

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. U.S. law for cleaning up hazardous waste sites and holding polluters accountable.

thermal pollution

the harmful increase in water temperature caused by human activities, impacting aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity.

PANs

short-lived air pollutants like peroxyacetyl nitrate. They contribute to smog and respiratory issues, formed from chemical reactions involving NOx and VOCs.