226 Diversity Plant, Animal, Bacteria (copy)

Archaeplastida

Major group of eukaryotes includes all plants and several types of algae. These organisms gained the ability of photosynthesis through endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria.

• Red algae

• Green algae and all land plants

Chlorophytes and Charophytes

Two main groups of green algae

• includes chlamydomonas which are unicellular

Charophytes are freshwater algae

Haplontic vs diplontic

Haplontic means the haploid stage is the dominant stage, where as in diplontic the diploid stage is the dominant stage

Haplodiplontic

haploid and diploid stages alternate during life cycle

• haploid form is known as a gametophyte

• diploid phase is called the sporophyte

Traits that are specfic for land plants vs lands plants and green algae

Land plants only

• stomata

• vascular system

• cell walls with lignin

Both

• Chloroplasts

Relate gametophyte and its dependence on its sporophyte for nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants and seed-bearing vascular plants.

Nonvascular plants

• the gametophyte is independent and larger than the sporohyte

Seedless vascular plants

• the gametophyte is smaller than the sporophyte and can live independelty of the sporophyte

Seed-bearing vascular plants

• the gametophyte is smaller than and dependent on the larger sporophyte

Bryophytes

Closest extant relatives of early terrestrial plants. Did not form fossils because of a lack of lignin

Includes,

• Liverworts

• Hornworts

• mosses

  • reliant on diffusion, limited to short height, dependent on water for reproduction

• Lack vascular tissue, true roots and leaves, lignin

• Have dependent embryos and apical meristems

Classify characteristics of ferns and mosses or both

Both

• seedless require water for reproduction

Ferns

• have vascular tissues

• sporophyte is the dominant life cycle stage

Mosses

• lack vascular tissue

• gametophyte is dominant life cycle stage

Label the what is the sporophyte vs the gametophyte of the 3 main Bryophytes

Fill in the blank of a moss life cycle

Fill in the blank for the fern life style

Earliest plants to evolve from earilest to latest

Green algae

nonvascular plants

seedless vacular plants

gymnosperms

angiosperms

What makes the insects successful in different environments?

• Flight

  • travel to food in new environments

• Waterproof cuticle

  • Prevents water loss

• Respiration/tracheal system 

  • Prevents water loss

• Desiccation resistant eggs

  • Reproduction in dry environments 

• Life cycle

  • Short generations, many offsprings

• Complete metamorphosis

Deuterostomes: major Lineages and what makes them different than protostomes

There are three major lineages

1)Hemichordates:

2)Echinodermata

3)Chordata

Indeterminate cleavage

Phylum Echinodermata

Ex. Sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, brittle stars

All marine, larvea are bilateral and then adult are more radial due to sessile lifestyle, slow moving, ednoskeleton of calcareous plates

Water vascular system

network of hydraulic canals branching into extensions called tube feet, under muscluar control

• locomotion, feeding, and gas exchange

The phylum Chordata includes?

Cephalopchordates, tunicates, vertebrates

The phylum chordata has what 4 distinguishing features?

1. Dorsal hollow nerve cord

2. flexible, supportive, notochord

3. pharyngeal slits

   1. filter feeding and later on used for respiration

4. muscular post-anal tail

Phylum Chordata, Cephalochordates

Marine organisms that live in the sediment on the bottom of the ocean, and pock their head out of the sand, becuase they are suspension feeders(also known as filter feeders) this is what their pharyngeal slits are for.

Phylum Chordata, Tunicates

Includes salps and sea squirts. They can be sessile, salps, or free-floating like the sea squirts. They are both suspension feeders, and pharyngeal slits are still used for feeding. The larvae have all 4 hallmarks of Chordata

Phylum Chordata, Vertebrates

Vertebrates have craniums and vertebrae, some has bone and cartilage. During embryotic development, vertebrates have all 4 characteristics, but lose them as we grow

Vertebrate phylum tree

Charateristics of the vertebrates: Hagfish and Lamprey

Jawless fishes

• Hagfish

  • partial cranium, lack vertebrae

  • marine scavengers

• Lamprey

  • parasitic, latching on to other vertebrates and eat flesh of other fish

Why was the development of Jaws so beneficial for the vertebrates?

The development of jaws in vertebrates allowed for more efficient feeding mechanisms, enabling a wider range of dietary options and enhancing survival. This evolutionary adaptation also provided greater mobility and predatory capabilities, contributing to the success and diversification of vertebrate species.

eat more things and bigger things

Where did the jaws come from in evolution?

The skeletal rods that supported the phaygneal slits developed into the jaws.

Jawed Vertebrates

• Gnathostomes

  • term that means having jaws

• Jaws

• teeth

• Gills into mandiles

• paired fins

  • help stablity from rolling, and generate lift

Chondrichthymes

• Sharks, rays, skates

• A cartilaginous skeleton is secondarily derived- ancestors had bones

• Swift, not maneuverable

  • fins are for stabilization and lift

  • oily livers give buoyancy

• Breathe by having mouth open and swimming

Ray-finned fish

• bony fishes with bony skeletons

• swim bladder (buoyancy)

• Operculum

  • covers gills (pharyngeal slit)

  • helps breathe without having to move in water

  • be able to stop and eat, unlike a shark

• very diverse

  • able to evolve to be in different ecological niches

ex. seahorses, pufferfish

Lobe Finned or Fleshy Finned fish

The difference is the structure of their fins

Coelacanths

• Marine

Lungfish

• freshwater

What are the characteristics of Animals?

1. Multicellular heteroptrophs

2. Ingest nutrients; digest internally

3. Lack cell walls

4. Embryos with gastrula stages

5. Collagen

What phylum are animals most closely related too?

Choanoflagellates

Phylum Porifera

Includes sponges, that are all aquatic, sessile suspension feeders, they lack symmetry, they have no tissues, no gut and only get nutrients from diffusion

Animal phylum: Eumetazoa

Includes the Cnidarians and bilaterals. They have tissues and two types of symmetry, radial (jelly fishes) and bilateral (humans crabs)

How does the type of symmetry relate to how an animal moves through its environment?

Animals with bilateral symmetry, such as most vertebrates, typically move in a directed, forward manner because their body is structured with a distinct head and tail, allowing for streamlined, efficient movement, while animals with radial symmetry, like starfish, move in multiple directions or around a central point, often using slow, coordinated motions.

Animal phylum Cnidaria

Invertebrate animal that include all aquatic jellies, sea anemones, corals, and hydra.

• radial symmetry

• have tissues

• diploblastic

  • ectoderm and endoderm

  • no mesoderm

• mesoglea

• diffusion

They have two body forms the polyp and the medusa

Differences between a polyp and a medusa?

A polyp is a nonmotile, sessile form with a tubulat body that is attached to a hard surface, mouth points upwards and can be singular or colonial.

Medusa is a free-floating, bell-shaped form thats comonly called a jellyfish, tentacles and mouth point downwards.

Characteristics of the Bilateral animals phylums

• bilateral symmetry

• triploblastic

  • ectoderm

  • mesoderm (complex organs)

  • endoderm

• Body cavity (coelom)

  • acoelomate

  • pseudocoelomate

  • coelomate

• have a mouth and anus

Explain the differences of Acoelomate, Pseudocelomate, and Coelomates.

Acoelomates lack a body cavity between the digestive tract and the outer body wall, with the space filled by solid tissue, as seen in flatworms.

Pseudocoelomates have a body cavity (pseudocoel) that is not fully lined by mesoderm, as seen in roundworms.

Coelomates possess a true coelom, a body cavity completely lined by mesoderm, providing space for organs to grow and move independently, as found in most animals, including humans.

What are the two major lineages of the bilateral animalia phlyums?

Deuterostomes

• anus is developed first from blastopore

• indeterminate cleavage(seperated cells can develop into a full organism) This is how identical twins are made.

Protostomes

• mouth develops first from blastopore

• determiate cleavage (cells are predetermined, seperate cells cannot grow into a full organism)

What are the two major lineages of Protostomes?

1. Lophotrochozoans

   1. annelid worms

   2. mollusks

2. Ecdysozoans

Phylum Annelida

• Segmented worms (controlled movement) w/ a closed circulatory system

• includes earthworms, leeches, polychaete worms

• both terrestrial and aquatic

Phylum Mollusca

Gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods

aquatic and terrestrial

ex. squids, snails, clams

Animilia Ecdysozoa’s

Includes, arthopods, nematodes, tarigrades

characteristics include

• cuticle

• ecdysis(shedding and molting

• exoskeleton

Phylum Arthropoda

Characteristics

• chitinous exoskeleton

• jointed appndages

• segmentation

• tagmatization

inlcudes the

• Chelicerates (spiders)

• myriapods

• crustaceans

• Insects

Chelicerates

Includes spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs

• cephalothorax and an abdomen

• anterior-most appendages are modified chelicerae

• 8 legs

Myriopods

Includes milipedes (herbivores) and centipedes (carnivores)

Crustaceans

Insects of the Sea

nearly all marine

• decapods, isopods, copepods, branchioposd and barnacles

Insects

Most successful group of animals, they make up 70% of all animal species.

Body plan includes, thorax, abdomen and three sets of legs and usually wings

How did the two prokaryotic domains seperate?

In 1977, George Fox and Carl Woese compared the rRNA genes and recongized two distinct prokaryotic groups.

When did bacteria life began?

3.5 bya

Are gram negative bacteria more or less susceptible to antibiotics?

They are less sesceptible to antibiotics becuase they have more pepitogylcan protection.

How do prokaryotes reproduce?

asexually by binary fission

Conjunction

Bacterita to bacteria horizontal gene transfer through a pilus

Transformation

DNA transfer bacteria to bacteria through picking up a plasmid in the enviroment

Transduction

DNA transfer by a virus to a bacteria, gets injected

Different types of nutrition absorbtion

Phototroph- light

Chemotroph- chemical inorganic or irganic

heterotroph- organic sources (glucose)

autotroph- inorganic sources (CO2)

What source of nutrites is unique to prokaryotes?

Chemoautotrophs

Ascomycota (ascomycetes)

Commonly known as sac fungi

Chitin

Chitin is a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and serves as a structural component in the exoskeletons of arthropods, the cell walls of fungi, and the shells of some mollusks. It provides strength and protection, similar to how cellulose functions in plant cell walls.

Hypha (hyphae)

A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure that makes up the body of a fungus. Hyphae grow and spread to form a network called a mycelium, which is responsible for nutrient absorption and reproduction in fungi.

Mycelium

The whole mass of fungi hypha, the white fuzzy part

Yeast

a single-celled fungus that reproduces by budding

Septa

Septa, or cross walls, are internal walls that divide the hyphae of most fungi into cells

Fruiting bodies

The fruiting bodies of fungi contain spores, which are dispersed for reproduction

Plasmogamy

Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi, in which the protoplasm of two parent cells (usually from the mycelia) fuse without the fusion of nuclei, effectively bringing two haploid nuclei close together in the same cell.

Heterokaryotic vs Dikaryotic Fungi

Heterokaryotic fungi have cells with two or more genetically distinct nuclei within the same cytoplasm, which can result from the fusion of different fungal strains.
Dikaryotic fungi specifically have two distinct haploid nuclei per cell, one from each parent, which coexist without immediately fusing, typical in the sexual reproduction phase of many fungi like basidiomycetes.

List in Order the vertebrate evolution

Cranium

• Hagfish

• Lampreys

Jaws

• sharks and rays

• ray-finned fish

Gas Bladder and Lung Derivative

• coelacanths

• Lungfish

walking legs

• frogs

• salamanders

• caecilians

Amniotic egg

• snakes and lizards

• turtles

• crocodiles/alligators

• birds

Mammary glands and hair

• mammals

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Describe the ecological relationships between fungi and other organisms.

Fungi can have different relationships with other organisms: they can help plants by providing nutrients in exchange for sugars (mutualism), harm plants or animals by feeding on them (parasitism), or break down dead matter to recycle nutrients into the environment (decomposition). These interactions are important for ecosystems.

Recognize the major groups of Fungi

• Ascomycota (ascomycetes)

• Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes)

• Chytridiomycota (chytrids)

• Glomeromycota (glomeromycetes)

• Zygomycota (zygomycetes)

Ascomycota (Ascomycetes)

• Characteristics: These fungi produce spores in sac-like structures called asci. They can be unicellular (like yeasts) or multicellular.

• Examples: Yeasts (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae), molds (e.g., Neurospora), and the pathogen Aspergillus.

Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes)

• Characteristics: These fungi form spores on club-like structures called basidia, typically found on fruiting bodies such as mushrooms.

• Examples: Mushrooms (e.g., Agaricus), puffballs, and shelf fungi.

Which life cycle is this?

Basidiomycota

What life cycle is this?

Ascomycota

Chytridiomycota (chytrids)

• Characteristics: These are mostly aquatic fungi with simple, motile spores (zoospores) that have flagella. They are often associated with amphibian diseases.

• Examples: Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (a pathogen affecting amphibians).

What lifecycle is this?

Chytridomycota

Zoospore

A zoospore is a reproductive cell that moves around using a flagellum to swim to a favorable environment for development

Sporangium

A sporangium is a structure in which spores are produced and contained, commonly found in fungi, plants, and some algae. In fungi, the sporangium is where asexual spores (like conidia or sporangia) are formed, while in plants, it is the structure that produces and releases spores during the reproductive cycle (e.g., in ferns or mosses).

• meiosis to produce spores

Glomeromycota (Glomeromycetes)

• Characteristics: These fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, creating mycorrhizae, which help plants absorb nutrients, especially phosphorus.

• Examples: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (e.g., Rhizophagus species).

Zygomycota (Zygomycetes)

• Characteristics: These fungi typically have asexual spore-producing structures called sporangia and sexual reproduction involving the formation of zygosporangia.

• Examples: Rhizopus (black bread mold) and Mucor species

What life cycle is this?

Zygomycota

Sporangia

produces and stores spores, found on plants fungi and other groups

Describe the various adaptations plants have for terrestrial life.

• Waxy Cuticle: Prevents water loss.

• Stomata: Regulate gas exchange and water loss.

• Vascular Tissue: Transports water, nutrients, and sugars.

• Roots: Anchor the plant and absorb water/nutrients.

• Reproductive Adaptations: Seeds and pollen allow reproduction without water.

• Lignin: Provides structural support for upright growth.

• Leaf Adaptations: Vary to optimize water use or sunlight capture

Xylem

Xylem is a type of vascular tissue responsible for transporting water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. It also provides structural support, as the walls of xylem cells are strengthened with lignin.

Lignin

Lignin is a tough substance in plant cell walls that helps plants stay upright and resist damage. It also helps plants transport water efficiently.

Xylem vs Phloem

xylem is used for water and nutreint transport, phloem is used for sugar distribution

Explain the alternation of generations of life cycle of plants.

Alternation of generations in plants is a life cycle where plants switch between two stages: a haploid (single set of chromosomes) stage and a diploid (two sets of chromosomes) stage.

1. The haploid stage is called the gametophyte, which produces reproductive cells called gametes (like sperm and eggs).

2. When gametes from two plants fuse during fertilization, they form a diploid zygote, which grows into the sporophyte.

3. The sporophyte produces spores through a process called meiosis, which are haploid cells. These spores grow into new gametophytes, completing the cycle.

So, plants alternate between these two generations: the haploid gametophyte and the diploid sporophyte.

For the mosses, which generation is dominant?

Dominant gametophyte and dependent sporophyte

• flagellated sperm

Which phylums are the vascular plants?

Seedless plants

• lycophytes

• ferns and horsetails(Pterophytes)

Seed plants

• gymnosperms

• angiosperms

Seedless Vascular Plants

Lycophytes(club moss) there used to be tree sized lycophtes 32o mya and Pterophytes(ferns and horsetails)

• well-developed roots and leaves

• vascular tissues

• lignin

• no secondary growth

Ferns and horsetails

• underground stems

• pinnae

• radiated after rise of angiosperms

• lack secondary growth but reach large size

What is the difference between primary growth and secondary growth in plants?

Primary growth in plants refers to the increase in length or height, occurring at the tips of roots and shoots (apical meristems). This type of growth allows plants to extend their roots deeper into the soil and their stems toward the light.

Secondary growth involves the thickening of the plant's stems and roots, occurring in woody plants through the activity of lateral meristems (like the cambium). This growth adds girth to the plant and allows it to grow thicker, which is important for supporting larger structures and transporting more water and nutrients.

Why was there an evolutionary trend that increased the importance of the sporophyte stage (2n) of the plant life cycle?

The sporophyte stage became more important because it allows for greater genetic diversity, larger size, and better protection of offspring, helping plants adapt to land environments. It also reduces reliance on water for reproduction, supporting plant survival in diverse habitats.