AP European History Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century (1763-1815)

Vasco de Gama

A Portuguese explorer who was the first to reach India by sea, establishing a direct maritime route and greatly enhancing European trade with Asia; put Portugal ahead in Indian Ocean trade

Dutch East India Company/VOC

A powerful trading company established in 1602 that played a crucial role in the Dutch spice trade and expanded Dutch influence in Asia; joint-stock company; the first transnational corporation and may have been the most profitable corporation in history; eventually degrades in competition with the British East India Company; focused on the East Indies

British East India Company

struggled initially, but eventually provided competition to the VOC; focused on India; with the Mughal Empire in decline, the British asserted themselves and eventually gained the entire subcontinent

Mughal Empire

A significant historical empire in South Asia that controlled large parts of India from the early 16th to the 19th century. Its decline in the 18th century allowed for the British to insert themselves into India, thereby gaining the subcontinent

Louis XIV

formed the French East India Company under the advise of Jean-Baptiste Colbert in 1664 to compete with other European trading companies, significantly contributing to France's global trade presence.

Madras

A coastal city in India founded by the British East India Company in 1639, serving as an important trading post and a center for British colonial administration; seized by France during the War of Austrian Succession, but this was reversed in the peace treaty

Dutch Republic

became the dominant maritime trade power in the Atlantic following the 80 Years’ War

Navigation Acts

A series of laws established by England to create a monopoly for British merchants and weakened Dutch dominance in the Atlantic Trade

Acts of Union

A series of legislative measures that united England and Scotland into a single kingdom, forming The United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.

Treaty of Utrecht

A series of agreements signed in 1713 that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, reshaping European borders and balancing power.

Seven Years’ War

A global conflict fought from 1756 to 1763 involving major European powers, often considered the first "world war" due to its scope and impact on colonial empires; Fredrick II’s invasion of Silesia sparked the War of Austrian Succession, and alliances fostered the involvement of Britain and France;Fredrick II refused to return Silesia to Austria, guaranteeing another war in the future and leading Maria Theresa to create new alliances, setting the stage for this conflict.

William Pitt the Elder

A British statesman and Prime Minister known for his leadership during the Seven Years' War, where he played a crucial role in expanding British imperial power and promoting military reforms.

Treaty of Paris

A series of agreements signed in 1763 that ended the Seven Years' War, resulting in significant territorial gains for Britain in North America and marking the rise of British dominance in global affairs.

Great War for Empire

A term used to describe the Seven Years’ War, highlighting its significance as a struggle for control of colonial territories and global dominance among European powers.

French and Indian War

A conflict in North America from 1754 to 1763 that was part of the larger Seven Years' War. It pitted British and colonial forces against French forces and their Native American allies, ultimately resulting in British territorial gains.

Pugachev Rebellion

An insurrection that occurred in Russia from 1773 to 1775, led by Emile Pugachev, who claimed to be the deposed Tsar Peter III. The rebellion highlighted discontent among serfs and peasants against the oppressive conditions of serfdom and government policies; resulted in Catherine the Great further restricting the freedoms of serfs

Emile Pugachev

was a Cossack leader who led the Pugachev Rebellion in Russia, claiming to be Tsar Peter III and advocating for the rights of serfs against oppression.

American Revolution

A conflict from 1775 to 1783 in which the thirteen American colonies fought for independence from British rule, ultimately leading to the establishment of the United States of America; occurs directly following the Pugachev Rebellion

Tupac Amaru

was an Inca leader of the 1780s uprising against Spanish colonial authority in Peru, advocating for ind igenous rights and autonomy.

Micaela Bastidas

was a prominent Peruvian revolutionary leader alongside her husband, Tupac Amaru II, during the late 18th-century uprising against Spanish colonial rule, fighting for indigenous autonomy and rights.

Francisco de Miranda

a creole official in the Spanish army who helped achieve the victory for the American revolutionaries at Yorktown; watched Spanish dealings with the rebels in Peru, calling the Spanish agents “astute and perfidious”; deemed the American Revolution the precursor to the Spanish colonies’ revolutions

Marie Antoinette

The last Queen of France before the French Revolution, known for her extravagant lifestyle and controversial reputation, particularly for her perceived indifference to the struggles of the French people; wife of Luis XVI

Estates General

A general assembly representing the French estates of the realm (Clergy (First), Aristocracy (Second), and o rdinary people (Third)), summoned by King Louis XVI in 1789 to address the financial crisis and reform the tax system.

cahier

A collection of grievances compiled by the three estates in France, presented to the Estates General in 1789 following Louis XVI’s calling of it

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by delegates of the Third Estate in France on June 20, 1789, to not disband until they had constructed a nation of individual citizens instead of servile subjects

National Assembly

The revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate in France in 1789 following the Tennis Court Oath, marking the start of a shift towards a more democratic government and the end of absolute monarchy.

August 4, 1789

The date when the National Assembly, as terrified aristocrats surrendered their privileges as feudal lords, abolished feudalism in France, eliminating the privileges of the nobility and clergy.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

A fundamental document of the French Revolution that outlines individual and collective rights, establishing the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, adopted by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789; INCLUDED freedom of religion

Women’s March on Versailles

A 1789 protest led by women in Paris who marched to Versailles to demand bread and the return of King Louis XVI and his family to Paris, highlighting the economic crisis and the desire for change.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A 1790 law passed during the French Revolution that reorganized the Catholic Church in France, bringing it under state control, and requiring clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the government; confiscated church property and mandated the election of priests by their partitioners

Jacobin Club

A political club during the French Revolution that became known for its radical views and significant influence in the National Assembly, advocating for the rights of the lower classes and the establishment of a republic; the most radical

Olympe de Gouges

A French playwright and political activist best known for her work "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen." She challenged the gender inequalities of her time and advocated for women's rights during the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen

A document published in 1791 by Olympe de Gouges that asserted the equal rights of women, paralleling the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and emphasized that women should have the same rights as men in all aspects of society.

National Convention

The governing body that established the First French Republic in 1792, tasked with drafting a new constitution and overseeing the execution of the war against foreign monarchies.

Maximilien Robespierre

A leading figure of the French Revolution, he was a key architect of the Reign of Terror and head of the Committee of Public Safety, advocating for the elimination of perceived enemies of the revolution; led the Jacobins

Reign of Virtue

A period during the French Revolution characterized by Maximilien Robespierre's attempts to create a more just society by enforcing moral standards and virtue, often through radical means and severe punishment of dissent.

guillotine

A device used for carrying out executions by beheading, it became a symbol of the Reign of Terror and was seen as a humane, enlightened method of execution during the French Revolution.

Committee of Public Safety

The executive government during the French Revolution, responsible for overseeing the Reign of Terror and protecting the revolution from perceived internal and external threats.

The Terror

A period during the French Revolution marked by widespread violence, political purges, and mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution.

Directory

The more conservative government of France from 1795 to 1799, characterized by a five-member board that replaced the National Convention and attempted to establish stability after the chaos of the Revolution.

Haitian Revolution

A successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place in the French colony of Saint-Domingue from 1791 to 1804, leading to the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black-led republic; inspired by the French Revolution

Edmund Burke

An Irish statesman and political theorist known for his criticism of the French Revolution, advocating for gradual reform rather than radical change. He argued that tradition and established institutions should be preserved. Lunched Conservatism

Mary Wollstonecraft

An early advocate for women's rights and author of "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman." She argued for women's education and equality in her writings, emphasizing the importance of women's participation in society.

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

A foundational text in feminist philosophy, written by Marry Wollstonecraft, that argues for the education and rights of women, promoting gender equality.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A military leader and emperor of France whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century. He rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several military campaigns, establishing a vast empire before his eventual defeat.

Egyptian Campaign

A military expedition led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 aimed at disrupting British trade routes and establishing French influence in the Middle East.

First Consul

The title held by Napoleon Bonaparte after the establishment of the Consulate in 1799 following his overthrow of the Directory, effectively making him the leader of France. He wielded significant power and enacted numerous reforms.

Concordat of 1801

An agreement between Napoleon and the Papacy that reestablished the Roman Catholic Church in France and resolved issues of church-state relations after the Revolution, fostering religious peace.

Plebiscite

A direct vote in which an entire electorate is invited to vote on a particular proposal, often related to constitutional changes or government leadership, used by Napoleon to legitimize his rule.

Consul for Life

A title bestowed upon Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802, following a constitutional amendment that allowed him to serve indefinitely as ruler of France, consolidating his power and authority.

Emperor

The title given to Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804 when he declared himself ruler of the French Empire, marking the establishment of a monarchy and further centralization of authority.

Virtu

the sacrifice of personal interest for the good of the republic

Napoleonic Code

A set of civil laws established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804, which standardized legal systems in France and influenced many legal codes worldwide; standardized the laws of citizenship, family, and property; restricted the rights of women

Lycees

Were secondary schools established by Napoleon in 1802 to prepare students for government and military service, promoting secular education.

Germaine de Stael

a French writer and intellectual who criticized Napoleon's policies and advocated for freedom of expression and political pluralism during the French Revolution.

Battle of Austerlitz

Fought on December 2, 1805, this was a significant military engagement during the Napoleonic Wars, where Napoleon's forces achieved a decisive victory against the Russian and Austrian armies; ended the Holy Roman Empire

Jacques-Louis David

a prominent French painter known for his neoclassical style and political themes, including depictions of the French Revolution. His works include 'The Death of Socrates' and 'Napoleon Crossing the Alps.' He often depicted triumphant moments in Napoleon’s career.

Francisco Goya

a Spanish painter and printmaker who depicted the French Revolution/Napoleon’s rule as a reign of terror

Battle of Leipzig

a major battle fought from October 16 to 19, 1813, this engagement involved a coalition of Russian, Prussian, Austrian, and Swedish forces defeating Napoleon, marking a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars.

Elba

an island in the Mediterranean Sea where Napoleon was exiled after his first abdication in 1814. This location played a crucial role in his return to power during the Hundred Days.

Battle of Waterloo

the battle fought on June 18, 1815, where Napoleon was defeated by the Seventh Coalition, leading to his final exile and marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

sans-culottes

members of the radical Parisian working class who played a significant role in the French Revolution, advocating for popular democracy and more egalitarian policies.

Storming of the Bastille

A major event on July 14, 1789, when revolutionaries (sans culottes) stormed the Bastille prison in Paris, symbolizing the uprising against tyranny and the beginning of the French Revolution.

Liberal Phase

the period during the French Revolution (1789-1792) characterized by the establishment of constitutional government, the declaration of rights, and significant political reforms.

Marquis de Lafayette

A key figure in the French Revolution, he was a military officer and a leader of the National Guard; championed the principles of liberty and was influential in both the American and French Revolutions.

Era of Liberty

the Jacobins reordered time by declaring that year 1 was no longer the year of Christ’s birth, but rather 1792; sparked this era

Louis XVI

King of France during the French Revolution, known for his indecisiveness and inability to address the financial crises that led to the revolution. He was executed in 1793, marking a pivotal moment in the revolution.

Joseph de Maistre

A French philosopher and diplomat, he is known for his counter-revolutionary views and strong criticism of the Enlightenment, advocating for traditionalism and monarchy.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

A leader of the Haitian Revolution, he played a crucial role in the fight against French colonial rule and is celebrated for his leadership in establishing the first independent Black-led republic.

Jean-Jaques Dessalines

A leader in the Haitian Revolution who succeeded Toussaint L’Ouverture and declared Haiti's independence from France in 1804, becoming the first ruler of independent Haiti.

bureaucracy

created by Napoleon to consolidate power; appointments were merit-based

Joseph Fouche

A French politician and minister of police under Napoleon, known for his role in establishing a surveillance state and maintaining order during the tumultuous times of the French Revolution.

Napoleonic Wars

A series of conflicts involving Napoleon's French Empire against various coalitions in Europe, lasting from 1803 to 1815; Napoleon claimed that he undertook these wars to spread revolutionary ideas

Continental System

A foreign policy initiated by Napoleon to weaken Britain economically by prohibiting European nations from trading with them.

nationalism

A political ideology that emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a specific nation, often leading to the desire for national independence or unification; results from the Napoleonic Wars, as citizens of other nations start feeling loyal to their own nation in contrast to France

scorched earth policy

A military strategy aimed at destroying anything that could be useful to the enemy while advancing through or retreating from a territory, used notably by Russian forces against Napoleon.

Louis XVIII

the replacement for Napoleon who he sought to overthrow during the Hundred Days

the Hundred Days

The period between Napoleon's return from exile on March 20, 1815, and the second restoration of Louis XVIII on June 28, 1815, marked by Napoleon's brief resurgence in power.

conservatism

a political movement that embraced romanticism and monarchies that arose in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars; believed that Enlightenment ideas, such as the support of individual rights, had led to turmoil and misery; wanted to go back to simpler times

Congress of Vienna

post-Napoleonic Europe conference of Prussia, Hapsburg Empire, Russia, Britain, and France, focused on restoring the old order and fostering peace

Talleyrand

French diplomat who played a key role in the Congress of Vienna, representing France's interests and advocating for a balance of power in Europe.

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian statesman and diplomat who was a leading figure at the Congress of Vienna, advocating for conservative principles and the restoration of monarchical power in Europe.

Holy Alliance

An alliance formed in 1815 by Russia, Austria, and Prussia aimed at upholding Christian values and suppressing revolutionary movements in Europe.

French Socialists

those in France who were concerned that the focus on individualism that arose in the French Revolution undermined the importance of community and society

Second Great Awakening

A religious revival movement in the early 19th century that emphasized personal faith and social reform, promoting evangelical Christianity and a sense of community involvement.

Methodist

A denomination of Protestant Christianity that originated during the Second Great Awakening, emphasizing personal faith, social justice, and community involvement.

exoticism

a cultural fascination with the alluring aspects of foreign cultures, often idealizing them and incorporated into art and literature; becomes increasingly common in the early 19th century along with romanticism

Mary Shelley

an English novelist best known for her 1818 work "Frankenstein," which explores themes of creation, responsibility, and the consequences of playing God; romantic, in contrast to her mother’s (Mary Wollstonecraft) work

Ludwig von Beethoven

a German composer and pianist who was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western music, known for his innovative compositions and emotional depth.

Quadruple Alliance

a coalition formed in 1815 between Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain to maintain the balance of power in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon.

1815

the year when the Congress of Vienna began, leading to the restoration of monarchy and the reorganization of European borders after the Napoleonic Wars.

Age of Metternich

a period characterized by the conservative policies of Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich, focusing on stability and the suppression of revolutionary movements in Europe after the Congress of Vienna.

romanticism

an artistic and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature, often as a reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

a philosopher whose ideas on education, democracy, and individual freedom greatly influenced the French Revolution and the Romantic movement.

Grimm Brothers

German folklorists known for collecting and popularizing traditional folk tales, such as "Cinderella" and "Hansel and Gretel," which reflect the themes of romanticism and nationalism.

William Wordsworth

an English poet who was a central figure in the Romantic movement, known for his emphasis on nature, emotion, and the beauty of the natural world, particularly in works like "Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey."; focused on uplifting ordinary objects to divine contemplation

Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog

a famous painting by Caspar David Friedrich, emblematic of Romanticism, depicting a solitary figure overlooking a mist-covered landscape. It explores themes of nature, human emotion, and the sublime.

John Wesley

an English cleric and theologian who founded the Methodism movement, emphasizing personal faith, social justice, and community.