BIS 010 FINAL EXAM

Controlled experiment

Comparing control group and treatment group under the same conditions, except for IV

Science and pseudoscience

Science= tested, psuedoscience=cannot be tested or falsified

Falsification

process of elimination of hypothesis’s that are clearly wrong

Properties of carbon

form up to 4 covalent bonds, small, creates stable bonds, and can bond w/ itself

Hydrophobic effect

how non-polar substances cluster together in water excluding water molecules

Polymerization

links different monomers tg to form polymers which gives us diverse biomolecules

Homology

same things in different organisms bc they came from the same origin. Test medicine on animals w/homologous traits. Multiple levels like cell structure and genes.

Structure of DNA

double-stranded so once pulled apart for replication each strand serves as a template.

Central Dogma

Replication (DNA polymerase) → Transcription (RNA polymerase) → Translation (Ribosome)

Base pairing

molecular interaction that allows transcription to copy info from DNA to RNA

Gene expression

can generate different cell types by allowing different sets of genes to be turned on or off.

Mutation

random change in a DNA sequence. comes from DNA replication errors and environmental damage. nonsense and frameshift are big mutations that can break the gene.

CRISPR

When Guide RNA finds its target within the viral genome the Cas9 cuts the target DNA, disabling the virus. Can be used to cut any DNA by changing Guide RNA to match target.

mRNA in vaccines

mRNA causes cells in your body to make a viral protein so that your immune system can learn to recognize it.

Gene

Piece of DNA that encode a protein

Genotype and phenotype

Genotype=DNA sequence, Phenotype=trait

Allele

specific version of a gene. Inherit one from each parent

Monogenic trait

trait determined by one gene/allele.

Environment affected phenotype

directly affecting gene expression leading to variations on observable traits.

SNP

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism. 1 base pair differs in individuals. SNP’s in promoters alter gene expression levels and in coding regions SNP’s directly modify the protein sequence.

ATP

Stored for when cell needs it because cells need energy for different processes. Mitochondria generates ATP. Sugars →chemical reactionns in mitochondria-→ ATP

Type 1 diabetes

defect in sending insulin signal. Insulin is not secreted/produced by pancreas, cells do not take up glucose so it gets too high.

Type 2 diabetes

defect in receiving the insulin signal. Insulin is present but cells do not detect it (cells are insenstive to insulin).

Insulin for treating diabetes can be produced in bacteria

genetic engineering can copy the gene for insulin and insert into bacteria. Bacteria turns on gene and produces insulin.

Infection vs. inflammation

infection=invasion and growth of a pathogen inside your body, inflammation=body’s repsonse to fight infection, send immune cells and protect itself

B cells and T cells

Produce antibodies and attacks invaders outside the cell tagging them so that phagocytes destroy them through phagocytosis. Cytotoxic T cells recognize bad infected cells and kill them to prevent the spread.

Clonal selection

since we have a lot of immune and thousands of B and T cells in each drop of blood these cells have a diverse pathogen specificity.

Vaccine in terms of B and T cells

contain pieces of the target virus/pathogen, generate an immune response from B and T cells then generates immune memory.

BRCA1

helps repair damaged DNA, mutations can lead to cancer

Car T cells

modified T cells that give them a new receptor to recognize and kill cancer cells

Oncogene

normally act to promote cell growth but they are regulated (used at the right time). Excessive or unregulated use of an oncogene can lead to cancer.

Tumor supressor

Genes that act in normal cells to prevent cancer. Loss of function of a tumor suppressor can lead to cancer.

Mutations underlie cancer

mutations cause cancer by disrupting normal cell growth and division

Growth factors regulating cell cycle

growth factors are produced signals that tell the cells to grow and divide. Process can be misregulated in cancer by sending too many signals to grow and divide.

3 reasons cancer is hard to treat

Specificity=cancer cells similar to normal cells, hard to make drugs that kill just 1, every cancer patient is different, resistance=high mutation rate promotes evolution of drug resistance.

Chemotherapy side effects, why?

Damaging DNA harms normal cells throughout the body

Drug resistance in chemotherapy

drug kills most cancer cells, few survive, then they grow and divide to regenerate tumor.

Cancer immunotherapy

Immune system can fight cancer. Uses different branches of the immune system to target and unleash immune system against cancer.

Genotype stays same/differs?

stays the same, every cell in an individual has the same DNA (genotype) bc all cells originate from a single egg.

Gene expression stays same/differs?

differs, different cell types use different genes based on their function. Some genes are turned on or off depending on their cell’s role

embryonic stem cells

comes from an embryo, capable of making any cell type in the body.

adult stem cells

Are rare, exist in specialized sites within the body, maintain body function by replacing/replenishing damaged cells in a tissue

stem cell therapy

 inject stem cells into the right place and let them replace missing or defective cells. rejection, improper growth, and incomplete function can get in the way.

Conduction

within a neuron, moves signal over long distances using an electrical signal/action potential.

neurotransmission

between neurons at synapsis using chemical signals/neurotransmitters.

synapse

connection between 2 neurons, change based on use

Drugs interfering w/communication between cells and NS

drugs affect/alter neurotransmission, they change how neurons send, receive, or clean uo signals leading to affects on the brain and body. drugs block receptors by preventing neurotransmitters from binding, stopping signals

inputs and outputs of a neuron

many inputs (dendrites) but only one main output (axon) that can send multiple

connections in the brain change during development and learning

synapses that get used get stronger. removal of synapses for the ones that don’t get used (pruning). Brain development involves large-scale synaptic pruning. development involves strengthening ones that are useful and getting rid of the rest

memory in cells

when the initial experience happens many neurons get activated, when similar experience happens many of the same neurons activate.

tastes

sweet, sugar, energy; umami, protein, building blocks; lipids, fats, building blocks + energy; salty, ions, water

Ozempic and wegovy

helps restore blood sugar regulation. affects neurons in the brain that control hunger

catabolism

breaking down complex molecules into simplier ones using ATP. amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, and carbon dioxide.

anabolism

building up complex molecules using ATP. proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids.

lactose intolerance

inability to digest lactose into simplier sugars that can be absorbed. lactose interolerant ppl don’t have the enzyme lactase to break down lactose.

Vitamins and Vitamin A

subtance that will make you ill if you don’t eat it. obtained from food because your body doesn’t make it. Vitamin A is a cofactor for light receptors in the eye and regulates gene transcription

Cancer cells making ATP

cancer cells rely on glycolysis (glucose → less ATP + lactic acid). it makes ATP quick which helps cancer cells grow fast. greedy for fast energy and building blocks. no respiration.

Probiotics

live yeast or bacteria aka good bacteria. supports digestion and immunity.

environmental factors affect gut microbiome

different diet → different gut microbiome. healthy diet supports good bacteria but medication can disrupt gut balance.

antibiotic

drugs that attack bacterial cells. target bacteria specific structures or bacteria-specific versions of essential components.

antibiotic resistance

pump drug out, mutate target protein, modify drug, inactivate drug

antibiotic resistance and antiviral drugs

analogous bc they evolve quickly to survive, random mutations or exposure to drugs make resistant cells. different because antibiotic is global problem that spreads between bacteria and antiviral is personal and individualized.

GMO

organisms who’s genetic makeup (DNA sequence) has been altered by humans for a specific reason. direct modification to DNA (modifying gene or introducing new gene)

selective breeding

desired traits are picked and passed on to offspring w/ breeding. same species passed on.

Greenhouse effect

gases in earth’s atmosphere trap heat, preventing it from escaping into space and warming the planet. excessive release of greenhouse gases led to increases in global warming.

carbox fixation

in photosynthesis, plants use energy from the sun from cholophyll molecules to turn carbon dioxide into carbohydrates like glucose.

carbon reserviors

significant amount of carbon stored in a particular palce, form, or state (carbon pool). carbon moves between them (some more easily than others)

suess effect

measuring carbon isotopes in the air to track where the extra CO2 comes from. fossil fules release a lot of carbon-12 but no carbon-14 bc they are old. overtime the carbon-12 has increased and carbon-14 has decreased, proving that the CO2 rise is from burning fossil fuels not natural sources.