Intro to Social Psych Exam 3

For Prof Molix's Spring 2024 class

prejudice

a preconceived negative judgement of a group and its individual members

stereotype

a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people

discrimination

unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members

social dominance orientation

a motivation to have one’s group dominate other social groups

authoritarian personality

a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups & those lower in status

realistic group conflict theory

the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships

ingroup

“us”: a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity

outgroup

“them”: a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one’s own group

outgroup homogeneity effect

perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members

own-race bias

the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race

group-serving bias

explaining away outgroup members’ positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one’s own group)

just-world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

subgrouping

accommodating individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group

stereotype threat

a disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

What are the two types of implicit theories and what do each of them mean?

entity (traits are fixed and will not vary by situation) and incremental (traits are not fixed and can change over time and situations)

What is overt discrimination?

rules that openly target subordinates for negative and harmful treatment

What is covert discrimination?

Rules that appear to be fair systematically but have a harsh effect on members of subordinate groups

What are the social roots of prejudice?

Social inequalities and religion & culture

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

physical aggression

hurting someone else’s body

social aggression

hurting someone else’s feelings or threatening their relationships

hostile aggression

aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure

instrumental aggression

aggression that aims to injure but only as a means to some other end

frustration-aggression theory

the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress

frustration

a blocking of goal-directed behavior

displacement

the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration

relative deprivation

the perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior

catharsis

a release of emotional tension, as after an overwhelming experience, that restores or refreshes the spirit

What is hostile aggression?

aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself

What is instrumental aggression?

aggression that is a means to some other end

What is symbolic aggression?

aggressive behavior that interferes with a victim’s advancement toward a goal

What is sanctioned aggression?

aggressive behavior that society accepts or encourages

What is proactive relational aggression?

when behaviors are a means for achieving a goal

What is reactive relational aggression?

behavior that is in response to provocation, with the intent to retaliate

What are some influences of aggression?

Pain, heat, crowding, arousal, group context

How do you become an angry person?

Through practice

How to deal with anger?

responsible expression, training in communication/problem-solving/empathy

What are the 5 main theories of aggression and a brief description of each?

• Social learning

  • acquisition of aggressive behaviors via observational learning process

• Cognitive neoassociation

  • aversive events such as frustrations, provocations, loud noises, uncomfortable temperatures, and unpleasant odors produce negative affect

• Script

  • When children observe violence in the mass media, they learn aggressive scripts

• Excitation transfer

  • if two arousing events are separated by a short amount of time, arousal from the first event may be misattributed to the second event

• Social interaction

  • interprets aggressive behavior as social influence behavior

What are the 3 critical stages of the general aggressive model?

• person & situation inputs

• present internal states

• outcomes of appraisal & decision-making process

proximity

geographical nearness; powerfully predicts liking

mere exposure

the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them

matching phenomenon

the tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a
“good match” in attractiveness and other traits

physical-attractiveness stereotype

the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: what is beautiful is good

complementarity

the popular supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other

ingratiation

the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another’s favor

reward theory of attraction

the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

passionate love

a state of intense longing for union with another; passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner’s love, and are disconsolate on losing it

two-factor theory of emotion

arousal x its label = emotion

companionate love

the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined

secure attachment

attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

avoidant attachment

attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others

anxious attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence

equity

a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

disclosure reciprocity

the tendency for one person’s intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

need for affiliation

a motivation that underlies our desire to establish and maintain rewarding interpersonal relationships

need for intimacy

a motivation for close & affectionate relationships

What are the pros of friendship?

• increases sense of belonging & purpose

• boosts happiness & reduces stress

• improves self-confidence & self-worth

• helps cope with traumas

• encourages change or avoidance of unhealthy lifestyle habits

What do those high in social anxiety tend toward?

• have higher sensitivity to and fear of disapproval & criticism

• perceive & respond to criticism that does not exist

• low self-evaluation

• rigid ideas of “appropriate” social behavior

• tend to forsee negative outcomes in future social interactions

• tend to fear anxiety and losing control

What are the pros of being physically attractive?

• have more higher ranking jobs

• make more money

• better social skills

• many report having a deeper sense of self-acceptance

What are the cons of being physically attractive?

• resentment

• unwanted sexual advances

According to the biological perspective, what are the two major drives in love?

• sexual attraction

• attachment

What are the stages of relationship development?

• Stage 0: No Relationship

  • status with respect to the world

• Stage 1: Awareness

  • become conscious of another…feel interested

• Stage 2: Surface contact

  • limited interaction…impression formation

• Stage 3: Mutuality

  • Move through substages toward interdependence

What is fatuous love entail?

passion & commitment

What do enduring relationships have?

• Love

• Satisfaction

• Inattention to alternative partners

• Sense of moral belonging

What do enduring marriages have?

• Married after age 20

• Both grew up in stable, 2-parent households

• Dated at least 1 year before marriage

• Are well and similarly educated

• Good, stable income

• Live in a small town or on a farm

• Did not cohabit or reproduce before marriage

• Are within 3 years of one another in age

• Similar ideology/worldview, maturity, values

• Parents still married

What are particularly stressful things in a relationship?

• loss of a job

• loss of a loved one

• terminal illness

• chronic illness

• infidelity

• having a child

• having a child with an illness

• marginalized group membership

Why do people break up?

• Image that there is more support and affection elsewhere

• Matching phenomenon

• Physical attraction

• Lack intimacy and/or affiliation

• Proximity

• Stress

altruism

a motive to increase another’s welfare without conscious regard for one’s self-interests

social-exchange theory

the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one’s rewards and minimize one’s costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social capital

the mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing help

kin selection

the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one’s close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes

empathy

the vicarious experience of another’s feelings; putting oneself in another’s shoes

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

moral exclusion

the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness

pro-social behavior

behavior that has the consequence of providing some benefit to, or improving the well-being of another person

egoism

an assumed underlying, ever-present motive to increase one’s own welfare

What are the models of social exchange and give a brief description of each?

• Communal sharing

  • all group members share in the group’s resources as needed and depend on one another for mutual care

• Authority ranking

  • higher-ranking individuals are entitled to loyalty, respect, and deference; lower-ranking individuals are entitled to protection, advice, and leadership

• Equality matching

  • no one gets more than others; people take turns, share equally, & reciprocate benefits

• Market pricing

  • individuals trade according to rational rules of self-interest, taking goods & services in proportion to what they put in, and seeking the best possible “deal”

empathy-altruism hypothesis

if empathy is aroused, then people will act altruistically

empathy-punishment hypothesis

helping others because individuals are motivated to relieve their own negative emotion and avoid the guilt/shame of failing to help

What do you do if you need help in public?

• Make your need visible and clear (shout for help)

• Ask a specific person - lay the responsibility on him/her

When are people more likely to help?

• The victim seems clearly to be in need of help

• The victim is similar to the potential helper and the assailant (if there is one) is different from the potential helper

How to increase helping behavior?

• create empathy for the victim

• make person feel guilty for not helping

• use a “door in face” strategy

• model altruism

• educate people about social psychological findings

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions and goals

peace

a condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

tragedy of the commons

the “commons” is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. the tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the tragedy—of the commons

non-zero-sum games

games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. with cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose

mirror-image perceptions

reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive

equal-status contact

contact on an equal basis. just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should ideally be between persons equal in status

superordinate goal

a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people’s differences from one another

bargain

seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties

mediate

an attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions

arbitrate

resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement