Brain and Behavior (Ch. 7)

Alpha Rhythm

Brain waves in the 8-12 Hz range, commonly associated with relaxed, wakeful states.

Behavioral Neuroscience

The study of how the brain and nervous system influence behavior.

Cerebral Voltammetry

A technique used to measure neurotransmitter activity in the brain.

Chemogenetics

A method that uses engineered proteins to control cells in the brain with drugs.

Compensation

The brain’s ability to adjust and maintain function despite injury or damage.

Computational Neuroscience

The use of mathematical models to understand brain functions.

Computed Tomography (CT)

A scanning technique that uses X-rays to create detailed brain images.

Deep-Brain Stimulation (DBS)

A treatment involving electrical stimulation of specific brain areas to manage disorders like Parkinson’s disease.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

A type of MRI that maps the pathways of white matter tracts in the brain.

Electrocorticography (ECoG)

A method of measuring electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the surface of the cortex.

Event-Related Potential (ERP)

A brain response measured using EEG, linked to specific sensory or cognitive events.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A brain imaging technique that measures changes in blood flow to identify active brain areas.

Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)

A technique that uses light to measure brain activity by detecting blood oxygen levels.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

Stem cells created from adult cells that can become any type of cell in the body.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A technique that uses magnetic fields to create detailed images of the brain.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)

A method for measuring chemical levels in the brain using magnetic fields.

Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)

A technique for mapping brain activity by detecting magnetic fields produced by neuronal activity.

Microdialysis

A technique used to measure the concentration of chemicals in the brain in real time.

Neuroethics

The study of ethical issues related to neuroscience, such as brain interventions and privacy.

Neuropsychology

The study of how brain dysfunction affects behavior and cognition.

Optogenetics

A technique that uses light to control neurons genetically modified to be light-sensitive.

Organoid

A miniature, lab-grown version of an organ, like the brain, used for research.

Personalized Medicine

Tailoring medical treatments to an individual’s unique genetic makeup.

Place Cells

Neurons in the hippocampus that help encode spatial memory by activating in specific locations.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A brain imaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to observe brain activity.

Resting-State fMRI (rs-fMRI)

An imaging method that measures brain activity while a person is not engaged in any tasks.

Stereotaxic Apparatus

A device used to precisely target brain areas during surgery or experiments.

Synthetic Biology

The design and construction of new biological parts, devices, and systems.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A noninvasive method that uses magnetic fields to stimulate brain activity.

What is the primary objective of behavioral neuroscience?

To study how the brain and nervous system influence behavior.

What are the main goals of behavioral neuroscience?

Understanding brain-behavior relationships, how brain damage affects behavior, and identifying ways to restore function through treatment.

What is the purpose of the Corsi block-tapping test?

To measure short-term memory for spatial positions.

What does the mirror-drawing task assess?

Motor learning by tracing a shape while looking in a mirror.

What is the recency memory task used for?

Testing the ability to recall the order in which items were presented.

Why are rodents and other non-human animals used in behavioral research?

They breed quickly, are easily managed, and can be genetically modified for research on neural circuits underlying behaviors like learning, memory, emotion, and movement.

What does lesioning involve in brain manipulation techniques?

Destroying brain tissue to study its effects on behavior.

How is stimulation used in brain manipulation?

By using electricity or chemicals to activate or inhibit brain activity.

What is the role of drug administration in brain manipulation?

Introducing substances to activate or inhibit brain activity.

What are genetic manipulations in behavioral neuroscience?

Techniques like CRISPR or optogenetics used to modify genes to study their impact on behavior.

What manipulation did scientists perform on rats in Experiment 7-1?

They exposed the rats to chronic stress.

What were the effects of chronic stress on hippocampal neurons in the rats?

It caused a reduction in the number and complexity of dendrites in hippocampal neurons.

What behavioral experiment did the rats perform, and what was measured?

They were tested in a maze to measure memory and learning ability.

What were the results of the behavioral experiment on stressed rats?

The stressed rats performed worse in the maze, showing impaired memory and learning compared to control rats.

What is the purpose of neuropsychological testing in humans?

To assess cognitive functions and identify brain abnormalities or dysfunctions.

Why are mice and rats commonly used in neuroscience research?

They have brain structures similar to humans, are easy to handle, and allow for controlled experimental conditions.

What is deep brain stimulation used for?

To stimulate neural activity and treat disorders like Parkinson’s.

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A non-invasive technique using magnetic fields to stimulate brain regions for studying brain function or treating depression.

What is optogenetics?

A technique using light to control neurons that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels.

What is chemogenetics?

A method using engineered receptors activated by specific chemicals to modulate neuronal activity.

What is the purpose of recording neural electrical activity?

To gain insights into how the brain processes different stimuli and the underlying mechanisms of behavior.

What do single-cell recordings help explain?

How neurons respond to specific inputs like visual stimuli or sounds.

What does EEG measure in brain recordings?

Changes in brain waves in response to different mental states, like being awake or asleep.

What are Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)?

Brain reactions to specific sensory stimuli, detected by measuring small changes in EEG signals.

What does magnetoencephalography (MEG) measure?

Magnetic fields produced by neural activity, providing more precise localization of brain activity compared to EEG and ERP.

What are the four major techniques for tracking the brain’s electrical activity?

EEG, ERP, MEG, and single-cell recordings.

What do single-cell recordings measure?

Action potentials from a single neuron.

What advantage does EEG have over MEG?

EEG is much less expensive than MEG.

What is the key focus of EEG studies in terms of brain function?

It provides insight into general brain states like awareness or sleep by measuring the electrical activity of large groups of neurons.

How does MEG differ from EEG in terms of localization?

MEG provides three-dimensional localization of brain activity, which is more precise than EEG.

What does EEG stand for?

Electroencephalogram

What neurological conditions are EEGs useful for detecting?

Epilepsy, sleep disorders, and abnormal brain activity.

How does an EEG trace change when someone is awake and aroused?

It shows low-amplitude, high-frequency waves.

What changes are seen in an EEG trace during sleep?

Higher amplitude, lower frequency waves are observed.

What is an ERP (Event-Related Potential)?

A measured brain response to specific stimuli, used by scientists to study sensory processing and cognitive function.

How is deep brain stimulation (DBS) used in neuroscience?

To stimulate specific brain areas to treat disorders like Parkinson’s.

What is optogenetics used for?

Controlling neurons with light to study brain activity.

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) used for?

Non-invasively stimulating brain regions, often for depression treatment.

How do chemogenetics modulate brain activity?

By using engineered receptors that can be activated by specific chemicals.

What neurological issues are EEGs especially useful for visualizing?

Detecting epilepsy, sleep disorders, and abnormal brain activity.

What is microdialysis used for in neuroscience?

It measures the chemical composition of extracellular fluid in the brain in real-time, making it useful for studying how chemical changes relate to behavior.

What are the disadvantages of microdialysis?

It requires the collection and analysis of fluid, and is limited in terms of measuring frequent chemical changes.

What is cerebral voltammetry used for?

It measures the levels of specific neurotransmitters in real-time without needing to collect fluid samples, allowing for fast brain chemistry tracing.

What is the main disadvantage of cerebral voltammetry?

It involves the degradation of chemicals during the measurement process and is mainly suitable for research on non-human animals.

What do twin studies aim to compare?

They compare behavioral traits between identical and fraternal twins to assess the genetic contribution to those traits.

What does higher concordance in identical twins suggest?

It indicates that environmental factors are less at play, and genetics may have a larger role.

What is epigenetics?

Epigenetics involves changes in gene expression that do not alter the DNA sequence but can be influenced by environmental factors like stress or early experiences.

What is meant by “a role in behavior” regarding epigenetics?

Changes in gene expression can persist throughout life and across generations, influencing behavior and brain function.

How can life experiences alter brain function?

Life experiences can alter brain function by changing gene expression, as seen in studies of stress, trauma, and maternal care.

What are some methods to measure chemical concentrations in the brain?

Techniques such as microdialysis and voltammetry are used to measure neurotransmitter levels and other chemical concentrations in real-time.

What are some challenges in studying human behavior?

Challenges include individual variability, ethical concerns, and the inability to directly observe brain activity.

How does brain imaging help overcome some challenges in studying behavior?

Brain imaging techniques like fMRI and PET provide non-invasive ways to observe brain activity during cognitive tasks.

What is the role of brain manipulation techniques?

Techniques like electrical stimulation and optogenetics allow researchers to alter brain activity and observe the effects on behavior.

How does behavioral testing complement imaging techniques?

Behavioral testing helps link observable actions with internal brain states, providing a more comprehensive understanding of behavior.

What are some key dimensions in neuroscience imaging?

Imaging varies along temporal resolution, spatial resolution, and invasiveness.

Why are techniques like EEG and neuropsychological testing more affordable?

These methods are less expensive compared to more advanced imaging techniques like fMRI and PET.

How can microdialysis and voltammetry be used in drug research?

These techniques can be used to measure neurotransmitter levels, helping to understand the relationship between dopamine and drug-taking behaviors.

What methods might be used to activate specific brain regions in rats to study memory?

Optogenetics or chemogenetics could be used to activate brain areas and study their role in memory.

What method can be used to observe cell types or connections in brain tissue?

Histological staining or tracing techniques like immunohistochemistry.

What does non-invasive brain imaging provide in research?

Non-invasive imaging provides ways to study brain regions and functions without physically altering the brain tissue.

What are the goals of neuroethics?

Neuroethics addresses ethical concerns arising from advancements in neuroscience, such as predicting mental health or controlling behavior.

What is an example of an ethical question in neuroscience?

Should we manipulate or control behavior using neuroscience technologies?

How do animal models help in neuroscience research?

Animal models help researchers study brain disorders that would be unethical to induce in humans.

What is the benefit of using non-human animals in neuroscience research?

The basic neural circuits of mammals are similar to humans, allowing insights into brain functions and development.

What has animal research contributed to?

Animal research has contributed to breakthroughs in understanding and treating neurological and psychiatric disorders.

What are the guidelines for animal research in the U.S. and Canada?

The U.S. follows the Animal Welfare Act, and Canada ensures humane treatment by enforcing strict guidelines and reviewing processes.

What is the purpose of institutional animal care and use committees?

These committees ensure researchers use the least number of animals necessary and follow humane methods.

What are some reasons for conducting scientific research in animals?

To model human diseases, study the effects of brain damage, and better understand brain function.

What types of questions does neuroethics address?

Neuroethics addresses questions related to the neural basis of social and moral behavior.

What should be considered before deciding to use animals in research?

Ethical implications, necessity of using animals, potential harm, and whether alternative methods can be used.

What are some pros of using animals in research?

Allows for controlled experiments, can model human diseases, and provides insights into brain function.