earth science and astronomy

solar wind

stream of high-energy particles sent into space which causes the light displays

aurora borealis

if seen from the Northern Hemisphere

aurora Australis

Southern Hemisphere

prominences

storms that look like huge arches extending outward the Sun’s surface that could last for several days

solar flares

more intense than prominences and last for only about 15 minutes

sunspots

dark, cooler parts of the Sun’s surface caused by changes in the sun’s magnetic field

sun

the only in the solar system; a ball of hot plasma that serves as the source of heat and light; holds 99.8% of the mass of the solar system

mercury

smallest planet; closest to the sun; no atmosphere

venus

– hottest planet in the solar system; slowest rotation among the solar system’s planets; Earth’s “twin sister”

earth

only known planet in the universe that supports life; within the “Goldilocks zone” maintaining water to remain liquid

mars

the red planet, its reddishness resulting from abundant presence of iron oxide

jupiter

– largest planet in the solar system; a gas giant mainly composed of hydrogen and helium; famous for its “Great Red Spot”

saturn

also a gas giant; known for its “ring system”

uranus

a gas giant; methane ice responsible for its bluish color; coldest planet

neptune

gas giant; farthest planet from the sun; only planet not visible to the naked eye

pluto

dwarf planet; a year in ——— is equal to 248 Earth years

248

one pluto year is equal —- earth years

earth’s moon

Earth’s only natural satellite; brightest object in the night sky

asteroids

“minor planets”; rocky objects that orbit the sun

jupiter saturn uranus neptune

planets that are gas giants

meteoroid

smaller than asteroids; “space rocks”

meteor

meteoroids entering the Earth’s atmosphere at high speed burning up; also referred to as “shooting stars”

meteorite

a fragment of an asteroid, comet, or meteoroid that survived its passage through the atmosphere and reached the Earth’s surface

polaris

north star; the tip of Little Dipper’s “handle”

sirius

brightest star in the night sky; “Dog Star”

ursa major

Big Bear; contains the Big Dipper

ursa minor

Little Bear; contains the Little Dipper

canis major

Big Dog; contains Sirius

canis minor

– Little Dog

orion

The Hunter

tres marias

form the belt of the constellation Orion

proxima centauri

closest star to Eart but too small to be seen in the night sky

alpha centauri

closest star to the Earth that is visible in the night sky

pegasus

The Winged Horse

light year

the distance light travels in one year

milky way

the galaxy where the solar system belongs in

supernova

explosion of a big star

black hole

areas in space with a very strong gravitational field that even light cannot escape

new moon

the moon is positioned between the Earth and the Sun, with the illuminated side facing away from Earth

waxing crescent

where a thin sliver of the moon's surface becomes visible and appears to be growing larger

first quarter

where the moon appears half illuminated, specifically the right side in the Northern Hemisphere

waxing gibbous

moon that is more than half illuminated and is increasing in illumination, moving towards a full moon

full moon

occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun, resulting in the entire near side of the Moon being illuminated and visible from Earth

waning gibbous

the moon phase when it is more than half illuminated but less than fully illuminated, and the illuminated portion is decreasing in size

third quarter

a phase in the moon's cycle where half of the lunar surface appears illuminated from Earth, specifically the left half in the Northern Hemisphere and the right half in the Southern Hemisphere

waning crescent

the last visible phase of the moon before it becomes a new moon

new moon waxing crescent first quarter waxing gibbous full moon waning gibbous third quarter waning crescent

phases of the moon

spring tides

strongest tides; occurs when the sun, Earth, and moon line up (every full moon and new moon); the sun and the moon’s gravities add up

neap tides

moderate tides; occur when the positions of the sun, Earth, and moon produces a right angle. Related concept: moon, winds, and earthquakes all can cause water waves; cause tidal waves, normal waves, and tsunamis respectively.

crust mantle core

what are the compositional layers

crust

outermost layer

mantle

composed of aluminum and silicates

core

mainly composed of iron and nickel

lithosphere asthenosphere mesosphere outer core inner core

the mechanical layers

lithosphere

includes the crust and top of mantle

asthenosphere

“plastic layer” where mantle flows easily

mesosphere

includes the lower mantle, where the mantle flows slower than the asthenosphere

outer core

– iron and nickel composition; liquid layer; produces the Earth’s magnetic field

inner core

– iron and nickel composition; different with outer core since it is solid due to intense pressure

10 to 70km

continental crust thickness

5 to 7km

oceanic crust thickness

2900km

core thickness

10 to 200km

range of lithospheric thickness

660km

the depth of the upper mantle boundary beneath Earth's surface.

5150km

the depth of the outer core boundary beneath Earth's surface.

6396km

the average radius of Earth.

mantle outer core inner core crust

thickest to thinnest layer of the earth

transform plate boundary

area where two plates slide past each other horizontally; causes earthquakes

divergent plate boundary

area on Earth where plates move away from one another;occurs at mid-oceanic ridges

convergent plate boundary

area on Earth where lithospheric plates collide together/move toward each other

transform plate boundary

convergent plate boundary

divergent plate boundary

continental continental

– occurs between two continental plates where their collision results in little to no subduction; creates mountains

oceanic continental

occurs between an oceanic plate and continental plate; the oceanic plate subducts beneath the less dense continental plate; creates volcanic ranges

oceanic oceanic

occurs between two oceanic plates; the older (and cooler) plate subducts beneath the younger one; forms an island arc; the Philippines is an example of an island arc

continental continental

forms mountains

oceanic continental

forms volcanic arcs.

oceanic oceanic

forms island arcs

magnitude

the size of the earthquakes; measured using the Richter Scale

richter scale

magnitude is measured using the

focus

a point at some depth in the crust where the earthquake originates

epicenter

the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus

p waves

longitudinal waves; seismic wave that can travel within the Earth’s surface and can pass through all kinds of medium: solid, liquid, and gas. faster than the other wave

s waves

transverse waves; can pass through solids; side-to-side shaking of the surface

love waves

surface waves moving parallel to the Earth’s surface; perpendicular to the wave propagation direction

rayleigh waves

surface waves moving in elliptical, rolling motion

igneous

rocks that are formed by the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

metamorphic

rocks that are subjected to heat and pressure

sedimentary

rocks formed by the accumulation of deposits of rocks fragments, minerals, and/or fossils

rock

a naturally occurring aggregate of one or more minerals

weathering

breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces

erosion

transport of sediment from one place to another

deposition

dropping/settling of sediment by factors such as ice, wind, water, and/or gravity.

Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond

mohs scale of hardness

Fossils

are preserved remains of plants and animals found in rock, soil, or amber

paleontology

the study of ancient and prehistoric life through fossils

trace fossils

preserved evidences of movement and activity of an organism that lived in the past such as tracks and burrows.

continental drift theory

proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912

continental drift theory

suggests that continents are once united in a supercontinent called Pangaea but drifted apart until they arrived at their relative position right now.