Bio Psych Midterm Study Guide

Central nervous system

made up of the brain and the spinal cord, which together mediate behavior; the part of our nervous system encased in bone

Peripheral nervous system

consists of all of the neurons and structures in the body outside of the brain and spinal cord (like nerves and ganglia), provides sensory and motor connections to and from the CNS

Function of the brainstem

responsible for most of our unconscious behaviors; central structure of the brain

Function of the cerebellum

specialized for learning and coordinating our movements; assists the cerebrum in generating many behaviors; major brainstem structure

Inherited behaviors

innate, fixed behaviors; ex. sucking response observed in newborn human infants

Learned behaviors

learned actions that are part of cultural transmission; passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and experiences (specific to a culture, group, & setting); enabled by our large brain

Minimally conscious syndrome (state)

a person can display some rudimentary behaviors, such as smiling or uttering a few words, but is otherwise not conscious

Locked in syndrome

condition in which a patient is aware and awake but cannot move or communicate verbally because of complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles except the eyes

Deep brain stimulation (DBS)

a neurosurgery in which electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area with a low-voltage electrical current to facilitate behavior

What can DBS treat

disorders like Parkinson disease and depression and aid recovery from TBI

Aristotle’s theories of brain/behavior

Mentalism: explains behavior as a function of the nonmaterial mind. all human intellectual functions are produced by a person’s psyche, which is responsible for life, and its departure from the body results in death; thought the brain existed to cool the blood and had no role in producing behavior; psyche is responsible for human consciousness, perceptions, emotions, imagination, opinion, desire, pleasure, pain, memory, and reason

Darwin’s theories of brain/behavior

Materialism: behavior can be explained as a function of the nervous system without recourse to the mind; explained through evolution by natural selection

Descartes theories of brain/behavior

Dualism: both a nonmaterial mind and the material body contribute to behavior; the mind receives information from the body through the brain, the mind direct the body through the brain, the mind, then, depends on the brain both for information & to control behavior

Mind-body problem

the inability of Descarte’s theory of dualism to explain how a nonmaterial mind and a physical brain might interact; proposed tests for the presence of mind, the ability to use language and memory to reason; proposed nonhuman animals and machines would be unable to pass the tests because they lacked a mind

Epigenetics

the study of differences in gene expression arising from environment and experience; epigenetic factors do not change genes, but they do influence how genes express the traits inherited from parents

Phenotype

a set of individual characteristics that can be seen or measured

Genotype

the particular genetic makeup of an individual

Hominid

general term referring to primates that walk upright, including all forms of humans (living and extinct); enhanced depth perception, highlight developed visual sense and hand movements

Homo Habilis

handy human, toolmakers; 2 million years ago in Africa; made simple stone tools

Homo erectus

upright human; 1.6 million years ago in Europe and Asia; more sophisticated tools; brain bigger than any preceding hominid

Homo sapiens

modern humans; appeared about 200,000 years ago in Europe where they coexisted with archaic Neanderthals; interbred until they replaced Neanderthals about 20,000 years ago

Plasticity

the body’s potential for physical or chemical change; enhances its adaptability to environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury; called neuroplasticity in the brain and nervous system

Neural agensis

the failure of a brain region or structure to develop; offers researchers an opportunity to study brain organization and function

Parts of the CNS

spinal cord and brain

Parts of the PNS

autonomic nervous system, somatic nervous system, enteric nervous system

Enteric nervous system

mesh of neurons embedded in the lining of the gut, running from the esophagus through the colon; controls the gut

Afferent

information that comes into the CNS (toward); INcoming information

Efferent

information that leaves the CNS (away); OUTgoing information

Sensory pathways are

afferent (incoming) (bringing sensory information from the outside world to the brain)

Motor pathways are

efferent (outgoing) (carrying signals from the brain to the PNS to initiate action)

Meninges

a triple-layered covering of protective tissue (dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater) that encases the brain and spinal cord, cushioned by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Cerebral cortex

heavily folded and layered tissue that is the outer structure of the forebrain; composed of neocortex and allocortex

Functions of the frontal lobe

executive functions such as decision making and voluntary movement; part of the cerebral cortex; front section of the brain (fingers)

Functions of the temporal lobe

auditory, taste, smell, memory, language, music, facial recognition, and emotional processing; lies below (thumb)

Functions of the occipital lobe

visual scene processing; part of the cerebral cortex; most posterior part of the neocortex (wrist)

Functions of the parietal lobe

sensory integration, directs movements toward a goal or to perform a task such as grasping an object; behind frontal lobe on top of temporal (knuckles)

Where is cerebrospinal fluid made

produced in the ventricles inside the brain and circulates around the brain and spinal cord until it is absorbed beneath the arachnoid layer in the subarachnoid space; cushions the brain so that it can move or expand slightly without pressing on the skull

Ventricles

cavities in the brain that make and contain CSF

What causes a stroke

disruption (reduction) of blood supply to a brain region

When are the two types of stokes

Ischemic (blockage of blood flow to the brain) and hemorrhagic (bleeding within the brain)

Role of glial cells

aid and modulate neurons’ activities; ex. insulating their axons

Role of neurons

carry out the brain’s communication and information processing functions

Brainstem

central structure of the brain (includes hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, & hypothalamus); responsible for most life-sustaining behavior like controlling movements; receives afferent nerves coming from senses and sends efferent nerves out to control movements

Hindbrain

evolutionarily oldest part of the brain; contains cerebellum, reticular formation, pons, medulla; controls various motor functionings ranging from breathing to balance to fine movements

Midbrain

central part of the brain that controls neural circuits for hearing and seeing as well as for orienting movements

Hypothalamus

diencephalon structure that contains many nuclei associated with temperature regulation, eating, drinking, and sexual behavior

Thalamus

diencephalon structure through which information from all sensory systems is organized, integrated, and projected into the appropriate region of the neocortex

What is the number of cranial nerves

12 pairs

Microbiome

bacteria located in the gut

Tourette syndrome

disorder of the motor system, characterized by involuntary vocalization (sometimes including curse words and grunting sounds) and odd, involuntary movements of the body, especially of the face and head

Parkinson’s Disease

disorder of the motor system correlated with a loss of dopamine from the substantia nigra and characterized by tremors, muscular rigidity, and a reduction in voluntary movement

Works of Cajal

the neuron theory: neurons are the units of brain function; the interactions between neurons enables behavior and the more neurons an animals has, the more complex its behavior; used Golji’s stain to study chick embryos and show that the nervous system was made of discrete cells, which begin life as a simple structure that becomes more complex with age

Works of Golgi

the nerve net hypothesis: the nervous system is composed of a network of interconnected fibers and information flows around the nerve net to produce behavior

Basic subdivisions of a neuron

soma (cell body), dendrites, and axon

Function of axon

carries messages to other neurons

Function of soma

core region of the neuron

Function of dendrites

collects information from other cells

3 types of neurons

sensory, interneurons, and motor neurons

Sensory neuron functions

carry information from the sensory receptors in or on the body to the spinal cord

Types of sensory neurons

bipolar & somatosensory neurons

Interneurons functions

associate sensory and motor activity within the central nervous system

Types of interneurons

stellate cell, pryamidal cell, Prukinje cell

Motor neuron functions

send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles; all efferent neural information must pass through motor neurons to reach the muscles; reside in the lower brainstem and spinal cord

What is hydrocephalus

buildup of pressure in the brain and swelling of the head; caused by the blockage of CSF flow in the ventricles; can result in intellectual impairment

Blood-brain barrier

a protective partition between blood vessels and the brain formed by tight junctions between the cells that compose blood vessels in the brain; prohibits entry of an array of substances (like toxins) into the brain; key part of brain and nervous system functionality; filter to the brain

Glial cell

nervous system cell that provides insulation, nutrients, and support; aids in repairing neurons and eliminating waste products

Types of glial cells

Ependymal cell, astrocyte, microglial, oligodendroglial, schwann

Ependymal cell function

makes and secretes cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Astrocytes function

provides structural support for neurons, transports substances between neurons and capillaries (blood-brain barrier), plays a role in scar tissue formation, and enhances brain activity by providing fuel to active brain regions

Microglial cell function

originate in the blood; aid in cell repair, scavenge debris in the nervous system, monitors health of brain tissue, and play sthe role of its immune system; identifies and attacks foreign tissue

Oligodendroglial cell function

Glial cells in the CNS that myelinate axons

Schwann cell function

glial cell in the PNS that myelinate axons

Myelin

glial coating that surrounds axons in the CNS and PNS to prevent adjacent neurons from short-circuiting

How is myelin produced

produced by oligodendroglia cells in the CNS (cells send out large, flat branches that enclose and separate adjacent axons) and by Schwann cells in the PNS (cells wrap themselves repeatedly around a part of an axon, forming a structure somewhat like beads on a string)

How many chromosomes do humans have

a human somatic (body) cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 total

What pair of chromosomes determine sex of the baby

Pair 23 are the sex chromosomes, which contribute to our physical and behavioral sexual characteristics

Down Syndrome

Chromosomal abnormality resulting in intellectual impairment and other abnormalities; usually caused by an extra copy of the 21st chromosome passed down by one parent (usually mother)

Tay Sachs Disease

Inherited birth defect caused by loss of genes that encode the enzyme necessary for breaking down certain fatty substances; appears 4 to 6 months after birth; results in intellectual disability, physical changes, and death by about age 5; caused by a recessive allele

Epigenetics

the influence of environment on selection of one or another phenotype

Which neurotransmitter slows down heart rate

Acetylcholine activates skeletal muscle sin the somatic nervous system and may excite or inhibit internal organs in the autonomic nervous system

Which neurotransmitter speeds up heart rate

Norepinephrine; found in the brian and in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

Neurotransmitter

chemicals released by a neuron onto a target with an excitatory or inhibitory effect

Difference between hormones and neurotransmitters

Hormones are transmitted through blood, neurotransmitters are transmitted across the synaptic cleft

Epinephrine (EP)

chemical messenger that acts as a neurotransmitter in the CNS and as a hormone to mobilize the body for fight or flight during times of stress; also known as adrenaline

Norepinephrine (NE)

neurotransmitter found in the brain and in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system; accelerates heart rate in mammals; noradrenaline

History of electron microscope

in the 1950’s it revealed the structure of a synapse for the first time; projects a beam of electrons through a very thin slice of tissue, varying structure of the tissue scatters the beam onto a reflective surface where it leaves an image or shadow of the tissue; better resolution than the light microscope

Synaptic cleft

the space between an axon terminal and a dendrite where the chemical travels from presynaptic to postsynaptic membrane

Steps of neurotransmission

steps 1 & 2: neurotransmitter synthesis, packaging, and storage → step 3: neurotransmitter release → step 4: receptor- site activation → step 5: neurotransmitter inactivation

Anterograde synaptic transmission

the five-step process of transmitting information across a chemical synapse form the presynaptic side to the postsynaptic neuron

Presynaptic membrane (axon terminal)

where the action potential terminates to release the chemical message

Postsynaptic membrane (dendritic spine)

the receiving side of the chemical message, where EPSPs or IPSPs are generation

Ways to inactivate a neurotransmitter after transmission

Reuptake inactivates a neurotransmitter by transporter proteins bringing the transmitter back into the presynaptic axon terminal for reuse

Classes of neurotransmitters

small-molecule transmitters, peptide transmitters, lipid transmitters, gaseous transmitters

Small-molecule transmitters

class of quick-acting neurotransmitters; synthesized from dietary nutrients and packaged ready for use in axon terminals

Peptide/Neuropeptide transmitters

short, multifunctional amino acid chain (fewer than 100 amino acids); acts as a hormone; may contribute to learning

Lipid transmitters/Endocannabinoids

predominant among lipid neurotransmitters, endocannabinoids are a class of lipid neurotransmitters, including anandamide and 2-AG, synthesized at the postsynaptic membrane to act on receptors at the presynaptic membrane; affects appetite, pain, sleep, mood, memory, anxiety, and the stress response

Gaseous transmitters

neither stores in synaptic vesicles nor released from them; synthesized in cell as needed, easily cross cell membrane; nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

Psychopharmacology

the study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

Methods of drug administration

orally, inhaled, through rectal suppository, absorbed from a patch applied to skin or mucous membranes, injected into the bloodstream, muscle, or brain

The fewest barriers for a drug to pass is by

injecting it directly into the bloodstream or the brain