Philosophy Logic and Reasoning

Argument

unit of reasoning which consists of a belief and reasons to support that belief

Rhetoric

a form of persuasive expression often mistaken for an argument, unlike an argument (which appeals to your critical faculties) it uses particular words to manipulate your emotions

Unstated/implied premise

premise that is embedded in the language that is not explicitly part of the arguments structure

Analogy

comparison of one thing to another typically for purpose of clarification or explanation

Allegory

serves to clarify/explain, uses characters, events, figures, in a story to represent abstract ideas to clarify a complex idea

Why is standard form used

Used to represent arguments to produce maximum clarity by clearing away other distractions

Deductive reasoning

Aims to guarantee the truth of the conclusion

Inductive reasoning

Aims to provide reasons to support a conclusion but doesn’t guarantee the truth

Thought experiments

imaged scenarios/situations created by philosophers to test ideas by isolating the essential parts of a problem and removing them from their context, to allow us to focus on the issue away from variables that confuse us

Logical fallacies

an error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid, an argument containing a logical fallacy reaches a conclusion that does not logically follow from what preceded.

Types of fallacies

Straw man, ad hominem

Straw man fallacy

when someone misrepresents, oversimplifies or distorts an opponents argument in order to make it easier to attack or refute

Ad hominem

where someone attacks the character, motives, or other attributes of the person making the argument instead of addressing the arguments substance

Cognitive biases

Make our judgements irrational, we have evolved to taking shortcuts in our thinking, but cognitive bias means there’s a kind of misfiring occurring causing us to lose our objectivity

Confirmation bias

based on looking for overvaluing information that confirms your beliefs or expectations

Anchoring bias

Based on using preexisting information/the first piece of information you come across to base your decision

Different between logical fallacy and cognitive bias

cognitive biases are rooted in the way the brain actually works whereas logical fallacies are errors in argument (purposeful and accidental).

What the allegory of the cave reveals about human nature

• We often don ’t question the validity of others ’ knowledge and we follow the people who we think know more than us

• We always try to make meaning of what we see and ascribe meaning to it

• Emphasises the importance of education and enlightenment in shaping our understanding of reality by suggesting that ignorance leads to a limited one.

• Enlightenment can be difficult, uncomfortable, and even rejected by others people may prefer the familiar lie to an uncomfortable truth.

• People often resist truth or change, especially when it challenges their long-held beliefs.

What the trolley problem reveals about human nature

• We tend to find it easier to justify harm when it's caused by a mechanical or distant action.

• This suggests people may prioritise outcomes over intentions, depending on how personally involved they feel.

• People are far less comfortable with directly causing harm, even for the same outcome. Human morality is often emotionally driven, not purely logical.

Utilitarianism

focuses on maximising happiness or utility for the greatest number of people, the greatest good for the greatest number

Kantian ethics

Emphasises the importance of moral ethics and the inherent worth of individuals