Module 5: Clinical Assessment

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure; accuracy.

Intelligence

The capacity for learning, reasoning, and problem-solving. 

Reliability

The consistency of a test's results over repeated applications; consistency.

Test-retest reliability

Consistency of test scores across a period of time.

Statistical Index: Pearson’s r, Intraclass correlation

Equiavalent forms reliability

Consistency of test scores across time, not vulnerable to the "practice effect".

Statistical Index: Pearson’s r

Practice effect

The phenomenon where participants' scores improve on repeated testing due to familiarity with the test format rather than actual improvement in ability.

Split-half reliability

Split-half reliability is a type of internal consistency reliability and checks if two halves of the same test produce similar results. In other words, it's like splitting a test into two mini-tests and seeing if both give you consistent scores.

Statistical Index: Pearson’s r

Internal consistency reliability

It tells you how well the items on a test "hang together" — that is, whether they are all measuring the same underlying construct. The preferred index of internal consistency; average of all possible split-half correlations.

Statistical Index: Cronbach’s alpha, Kuder-Richardson-20

Interrater / Interjudge reliability

Degree of agreement between two or more raters/judges on the level of a trait or presence/absence of a feature/diagnosis.

Statistical Index: Pearson’s r, Intraclass correlation, Kappa

Content Validity

The degree to which test items adequately measure the various aspects of the variable or construct. 

Predictive Validity

The degree to which test scores can predict behavior or test scores observed/obtained in the future. 

Concurrent validity

Concurrent validity checks how well your test correlates with an already established test or outcome, measured at the same time. The extent to which test scores correlate with a related, but independent, set of test scores or behaviors.

Construct validity

The extent to which test scores correlate with other measures/behaviors in a logical and theoretically consistent way, involving convergent and discriminant validity.

i.e. whether the test truly measures the theoretical concept it claims to measure

Charles Spearman

A british psychologist that developed a statistical analysis called factor analysis.

L.L. Thurstone

American psychologist known for developing the theory of multiple intelligences and one of Charles Spearman’s biggest critics

Howard Gardner

An American psychologist best known for his theory of multiple intelligences, which challenges the traditional view of intelligence as a single entity.

Robert Sternberg

An American psychologist known for his theory of successful intelligence, which emphasizes the importance of analytical, creative, and practical skills.

Factor analytic

Intelligence is composed of underlying factors or mental abilities that can be statistically identified through factor analysis

Factor Analysis

Statistical method used to reduce a large number of variables into a smaller set of underlying, unobservable variables called factors. Clusters.

“g” Factor

(General Intelligence)  A single underlying factor that influences performance on all intellectual tasks. Individuals high in “g” tend to do well across various cognitive tests.

“s” Factors

(Specific Abilities) Abilities specific to particular tasks (e.g., verbal fluency, spatial reasoning). Performance on a specific task depends on both “g” and the relevant “s” factor.

Guilford’s Classification

Intelligence is a three-dimensional structure with is a three-dimensional structure with 180 different intellectual abilities (originally 120)

Dimensions

• Operations (Processes): How we think (e.g., cognition, memory, evaluation, convergent production, divergent production)

• Contents (What we think about): The nature of the information (e.g., visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral).

• Products (The form of our thoughts): The outcome of processing (e.g., units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, implications)

Cattell’s Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Intelligence consists of two main types of abilities: Fluid Intelligence or Gf and Crystallized Intelligence or Gc

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

The ability to reason abstractly, solve novel problems, and think flexibly, independent of prior knowledge. It’s often seen as innate potential and peaks in early adulthood. Examples: solving logic puzzles, identifying patterns.

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

Accumulated knowledge, skills, and experience acquired over time through education and culture. It continues to grow throughout adulthood. Examples: vocabulary, general information, understanding historical facts.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence is not a single, general entity but rather a set of relatively independent intelligences. Individuals possess different strengths in these areas.

Gardner’s 8 intelligence

• Linguistic: Sensitivity to spoken and written language, ability to learn languages, and use language to accomplish goals.

• Logical-Mathematical: Ability to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.

• Spatial: Capacity to understand visual-spatial relationships and to think in three dimensions.

• Musical: Skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.

• Bodily-Kinesthetic: Ability to use one’s whole body or parts of the body (like hands or fingers) to solve problems or create products.

• Interpersonal: Ability to understand and interact effectively with others.

• Intrapersonal: Capacity to understand oneself, including one’s own feelings, motivations, and fears.

• Naturalistic: Ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals, and other objects in nature.
  
  Mnemonic to remember it better:
  Little - Linguistic
  Lions - Logical-mathematical
  See - Spatial
  Many - Musical
  Beautiful - Bodily-Kinesthetic
  Insects - Interpersonal
  Ignoring - Intrapersonal
  Nature - Naturalistic
  
  Little Lions See Many Beautiful Insects, Ignoring Nature

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Proposed by Robert Sternberg, posits that intelligence is comprised of three distinct but interrelated components: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

Analytical Intelligence

Relates to the ability to analyze, evaluate, and solve problems logically, often associated with traditional academic skills.

Creative Intelligence

Relates to the ability to deal with novel situations, adapt to new experiences, and generate new ideas.

Practical Intelligence

Encompasses the skills needed to adapt to, shape, and select environments, often described as “street smarts” or common sense

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Coigned by William Stern using revisions of Binet and Simone’s work to invent IQ measurement. IQ = Mental age/Chronological age x 100.

Binet-Simon IQ test

French Psychologists Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon designed the first IQ test meant to test the mental and psychological capabilities of children

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

An individually administered assessment of cognitive abilities for individuals aged 2 to 85 and older. Works best on children

Army Alpha and Beta Tests

Tests developed by the Robert Yerkes during WWI to measure recruits' intelligence. The Alpha test assessed verbal and numerical skills, while the Beta test measured non-verbal intelligence for illiterate or non-English speakers.

Weschler Intelligence Scales (recent version is WAIS-V but we discussed WAIS-IV)

Wechsler developed two different tests specifically for use with children: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). Rather than scoring based on chronological and mental age, the WAIS is scored by comparing the test taker's score to the scores of others in the same age group. It should be that the current Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is meant for people ages 16 and above)

WAIS-IV contains 10 subtests, along with five supplemental tests, and provides scores in four major areas of intelligence:

- Verbal comprehension
- Perceptual reasoning
- Working memory
- Processing speed

Objective Personality Tests

Tests that use structured questions to gain insights into an individual's character traits. These tests aim to predict behavior in various situations. 

Content Validation

Item is valid if "authorities" assert that the item represents the syndrome of (e.g., depression).

Example of construction: Woodworth Personal Data Sheet

Empirical Criterion Keying

Item is valid if it discriminates between groups (e.g., depressed and non-depressed groups). 

Example: MMPI (Minnesorta Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Factor Analysis

Item is valid if it is shown through factor analysis to be significantly related to a homogeneous and independent cluster of items that measure.

Example: Guilford Inventories

Construct Validity

Item is valid if it measures the construct as theoretically defined (e.g., depression involves a negative view of oneself, seeing oneself as unhappy). 

Example: Big Five Inventory (OCEAN)

MMPI and MMPI-2

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. A comprehensive psychological test used to assess personality traits and psychopathology. Primarily used in clinical settings to help diagnose mental health disorders. The MMPI-2 is a revised and updated version with a new normative sample, revised items, and new scales.

MMPI-2-RF

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form. A psychometrically refined version of the MMPI-2 designed to reduce scale overlap and provide more specific measures of psychopathology through Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales and a hierarchical structure.

MMPI-3

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-3. The latest version of the MMPI, featuring a more contemporary and diverse normative sample, updated and revised items, and new and refined scales to improve clinical utility and incorporate a dimensional approach to psychopathology.

NEO PI-R

NEO Personality Inventory-Revised. A comprehensive self-report inventory designed to assess the five major domains of personality (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness - OCEAN) and their 30 underlying facets.

NEO PI-3

NEO Personality Inventory-3. A more recent version of the NEO PI-R that includes a lower reading level to enhance accessibility. It continues to assess the five major personality domains (OCEAN) and their facets.

Big Five Inventory (OCEAN)

A relatively short self-report questionnaire designed to measure an individual's standing on the five broad dimensions of personality: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. It provides a broad overview of personality traits.