Developmental: Lecture 1 + chapter 2

1. Introduction to the course 2. Theories and issues in child development 3. Introduction to psychological assessment

theory

**a coherent set of ideas, hypotheses and explanations**

Nature/endogenous

Knowledge is innate and gets expressed during the course of development

**Nurture/exogenous**

Only learning mechanisms are innate, all the rest of development is determined by the environment

Continuous

Development is gradual; children are not qualitatively different from adults; children lack experience

Stages

Development occurs in transitions; children are qualitatively different from adults

Passive

Child plays a passive role; development occurs automatically

Active

Child plays an active role in its own development; constructs its own knowledge

**Maturational theory of Gesell (1924)**

biologically directed maturation; the same developmental patterns independent of environmental input

Cephalocaudal

From head to foot

Proximodistal

from centre of body to periphery

Key points of **Maturational theory of Gesell (1924)**

* Maturation of central nervous system determines the development of the child, behavioral development follows
* Cephalocaudal trend = from head to foot
* Proximodistal trend = from centre of body to periphery
* Differences in child’s temperament play important role in pace of development
* Role of parents is to provide the right environment (when the child is ready; no pushing)

Criticism to **Maturational theory of Gesell (1924)**

• Not all children follow the same pattern (e.g., backward crawling and butt sliding)

• Does not necessarily generalize to all cultures \n • Environment can play guiding role

**McGraw (1945)**

enviroment can shape motor development (Twin study with Jimmy and Johnny Woods)

Dynamic systems theory

Development is a complex interaction between properties of the system and environment

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency of others to overestimate the influence of dispositions (traits) and to underestimate the influence of situational factors (states, reaction to situation)

Salience effect

Giving more weight to striking information than non-striking information when drawing conclusions

Contrast error

General tendency to judge others in a manner opposite from the way in which one perceives themselves due to a perceived difference between self and others

Illusory correlation

Perceiving links between tests and own conclusion, which do not exist empirically

Blind spot bias

The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people and to be less able to recognize biases in oneself than in others

Psychoanalysis

the theoretical view, first developed by Sigmund Freud, that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious factors.

assimilation

the process through which children incorporate new experiences into their preexisting *schemes*

accommodation

the cognitive process through which children adapt to new experiences by modifying their preexisting *schemes*

schemes

mental structures in the child’s thinking that provide representations and plans for enacting behaviours.

functional invariance

processes that do not change during development, such as *accommodation* and *assimilation* in Piaget’s theory.

sensorimotor stae

first stage of *cognitive development*

* thought is based primarily on perception
* action and internalised thinking is largely absent.
* development of *thought in action*
* learn object permanence
* from birth to about 2 years old.

pre operational stage

second stage

* 2-7 years
* **egocentric**
* **animism**
* thinking tends to be illogical
* magical (believe in Santa Claus)
* **centration**

concrete operations stage

third stage

* 7-11 years
* pass the conservation task (no more centration)


* reasoning becomes more logical, systematic and rational in its application to concrete objects.

formal operations stage

fourth and final stage

* from 11 years


* individual acquires the capacity for abstract scientific thought. This includes the ability to theorise about impossible events and items.

egocentric

someone who finds it difficult to see things from another person’s point of view.

animism

children in the preoperational stage tend to attribute life and life-like qualities to inanimate objects, particularly those that move and are active.

centration

the focusing or centring of attention on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others.

conservation tasks

tasks that examine children’s ability to understand that physical attributes of objects, such as their mass and weight, do not vary when the object changes shape.

information processes

the view that cognitive processes are explained in terms of inputs and outputs and that the human mind is a system through which information flows.

constructivism

Piaget’s theoretical view that infants are not born with knowledge about the world, but instead gradually construct knowledge and the ability to represent reality mentally.

* bottom-up

bottom-up vs. top-down

Bottom-up:

* allowing the stimulus itself to shape our perception, without any preconceived ideas.

Top-down:

* using our background knowledge and expectations to interpret what we see.

object unity of infants

younger infants perceive the components but not the wholes – they perceive the parts of a partly hidden object but do not see it as a single unit

**connectionism**

a modern theoretical approach that developed from *information processing* accounts in which computers are programmed to simulate the action of the brain and nerve cells (*neurons*).

zone of proximal development

the distance between the actual developmental level and the level of potential development

* determined by independent problem solving vs. with adults or more able peers

**introspectionism**

an approach to psychology common in the \n 19th century in which observers were asked

to reflect on their thoughts, feelings and perceptions.

law of effect

Thorndike: the likelihood of an action being repeated is increased if it leads to a pleasant outcome, and decreased if it leads to an unpleasant outcome.

social learning theory

Albert Bandura. The application of *behaviourism* to \n social and cognitive learning that emphasises the importance of *observational learning*

observational learning

situation in which people (especially children) learn by observing others and then copying (imitating) the observed acts.

social cognitive theory

a theory that emphasises social factors in cognitive development.

primary drives

basic needs which include hunger, thirst and the need for warmth. attachment is argued as a primary drive as well (Bowlby)

secondary drive

an object that acquires reinforcing properties by being associated with the satisfaction of an individual’s *primary drives.*

monotropy

the view that the infant has a basic need to form an attachment with one significant person (usually mother)

id

* present in newborns
* consists of impulses, emotions and desires.
* demands instant gratification of all its wishes and needs

ego

rational thought that evolved to control the urges of the *id* in order to meet the demands of reality and maintain social approval and esteem.

superego

* sense of duty and responsibility


* conscience
* in conflict with id

oral stage

* birth to 1 year
* Greatest satisfaction: stimulation of the lips, tongue and mouth.
* Sucking

anal stage

\
* 1-3 years
* potty training
* pleasure: exercising control over the anus and by retaining and eliminating faeces.

phallic stage

* 3-6 years
* pleasure: stimulating genitals
* boys: Oedipus complex → castration complex
* girls: Electra complex

latency and genital stages

* 6 years - adolescence
* latency: rest period (6 years until puberty and adolescence)
* genital stage: at adolescence, sexual feelings become more apparent and urgent

Oedipus complex

young boy develops sexual feelings toward his mother but realises that his father is a major competitor for her (sexual) affections.

castration complex

young boy fears castration at the hands of his father

* resolved: he adopts the ideals of his father and the superego develops.

Electra complex

little girls develop feelings towards their father and fear retribution at the hands of their mother.

* resolved: empathising with their mother, adopting the ideals she offers, superego develops.

Problems with Freudian theory

* unconscious processes cannot be measured; based on beliefs rather than evidence.
* Freud’s views are almost impossible to test. →**reaction formation** →impossible to predict the child’s development + unfalsifiable

reaction formation

The individual may react, often unconsciously, to negative aspects of their personality and react against it (opposite as predicted) (*psychoanalytic theory*)

psychosocial stages

Erik Erikson.

The child goes from the stage of ‘basic trust’ in early infancy to the final stage in adult life of maturity with a sense of integrity and self-worth.

humanistic theory

theory which emphasises that humans have free will and are motivated to fulfil their potential.

self-actualization

fulfilment of needs beyond those deemed necessary for survival (humanistic theory)

hierarchy of needs

stages of needs or desires in Abraham Maslow’s *humanistic theory* which go from the basic physiological needs for food and water to the ultimate desire for *self-actualisation* or the desire to fulfil one’s potential.

gender constancy

the awareness, in early childhood, that one is either a boy or a girl, and that this is unchangeable