Section B - Demographic changes + the family

demography …

the study of the human population - includes studying how factors such as fertility and mortality affect the size and make up the population

birth rate …

there has been a significant decline in fertility rate since the 19th century - 1970 it was 2.44 per woman in the uk, in 2014 it reduced to 1.83 births per woman

family size …

families were much larger in victorian era with up to 10 children in each - now birth rates have declined to much less

what are the 5 explanations for trends in birth rates and family sizes?

changes in healthcare + medical advancements

economic changes

women’s opportunities + changing gender roles

changing social attitudes

individualisation

changes in healthcare + medical advancements …

declining mortality - from 1830 the death rate in the uk decreased and life expectancy increased - in 1901 25% of all deaths were babies whereas in 2005 they accounted for less than 1% of deaths

contraception + abortion - 20th century contraception became more socially acceptable - introduction of the Birth Control Pill 1961 allowed couples to plan when they want children. 1967 Abortion Act - legalised abortion for the first time

economic changes …

children moving from an economic asset to an economic burden - in the 19th century children were regarded as an economic asset but now they arguably have become a financial burden on parents.

cost of a child - CEBR found that the cost of raising a child from birth to 21 in 2013 was £230,000. it also suggested that 1 in 5 parents are delaying having another child due to cuts to child benefits. Parents spend around £460 a year on average on ‘things’

rising cost of living - pay freezes, benefit cuts and dealing with debt are all concerns which would stop a couple from considering expanding their family

Womens opportunities + changing gender roles …

Sue Sharpe carried out 2 studies and found women’s aspirations shifter from ‘love + marriage’ to ‘careers + education’

women’s rising levels of educational achievement - Bhrolchain + Beaujouan suggest more and more women are staying on longer in education and therefore want fewer children - professional middle class women tend to start families much later than working class women

women’s greater participation in the labour force - Equal Pay Act 1970 + Sex Discrimination Act 1975 have led to an increase in women working - women now represent 46.5% of the total labour force

changing social attitudes to children …

‘childless to childfree’ - large families were seen as desirable but from the 1870s onwards we began to see smaller families and fewer children as a way of improving living standards - the state of ‘childlessness’ was seen as unfortunate whereas now to be ‘childfree’ is a chosen lifestyle

child centeredness - attitudes towards children and childhood have changed - families have become more child centred by prioritising the well being of children over parents

individualisation …

individualisation - Beck + Beck Gernsheim argue individuals are increasingly seeking a life of their own in which they make their own decisions

risk - Beck + Beck Gernsheim also refer to the importance of risk and argue that individuals seek to control and avoid risk. they seek to minimise risk by avoiding or delaying having children

reflexivity - Giddens argues that there has been a growth in reflexivity by which individuals reflect on their personal lives and constantly question whether they are getting the best out of life

What are the 4 explanations in the changes in the age of marriage + childbearing …

individualisation

the changing role of women

changing social attitudes

the continuing importance of marriage

individualisation …

individualisation : Beck + Beck Gernsheim argue individuals are no longer bound to traditional social norms and pressure to make certain decisions e.g. marriage, childbearing

risk: Beck + Beck Gernsheim argues marriages can lead to divorce which can impact children and have considerable risks

confluent love: Giddens argues that individuals no longer seek the kind of romantic love associated with traditional marriage but a more fulfilling kind of love where the needs of both partners are being met

the changing role of women …

women unwilling to accept oppression - radical feminists such as Greer see the delay in marriage as a positive development resulting from women’s unwillingness to accept oppression by their husbands

changing women’s aspirations - Sue Sharpe argued women’s attitudes have shifter from ‘love + marriage’ to ‘careers + education’

women’s rising levels of educational achievement - Bhrolchain + Beaujouan suggest that more women are staying in education longer and are therefore not ready to start having children or marry until later

women’s greater participation in the labour force - Equal Pay Act 1970 + Sex Discrimination Act 1975

changing social attitudes …

up until the 1960s there was strong social pressure on most couples to marry young and to have children young but now cohabitation has become more socially acceptable and sexual relationships outside marriage

continuing importance of marriage …

people may be delaying marriage rather than rejecting it as an institution - The American Family Survey 2015 donut that couples in the US beloved that it was still important to accomplish other life goals before marriage

ageing population …

means that the average age of the population is increasing - from 1985 to 2010 the median age of the UK increased from 35.4 years to 39.7 years (ONS)

what are the 3 explanations for the ageing population …

medical + healthcare

children as an economic burden

changing social attitudes to children

medical + healthcare advancements …

increased life expectancy - ONS in 1951 life expectancy at birth in the UK was 66.1 years for men and 70.9 years for women - in 2012 it impressed for 78.7 for men and 82.6 for women

declining mortality - after 1830 the death rate in the UK decreased and life expectancy increased - infant mortality in 1901 was 25% of all deaths and in 2005 it accounted for 1%

children as an economic burden …

children moving from an economic asset to an economic burden

cost of a child - CEBR found the cost of raising a child from birth to 21 was £230,000 + on average parents spend around £460 a year on things children do not need after giving in to the pestering

changing social attitudes to children …

‘childless to childfree’

‘child centeredness’