bio exam 2

chapter 11 & 21

types of biodiversity

species

ecosystem

genetic

species diversity

number of species in a given area

ecosystem diversity

different climactic cords in a given area

genetic diversity

number of alleles in a gene pool for a populations

3 things that affect species richness

1. solar energy

2. evolutionary history

3. disturbances

species richness: solar energy

closer to the equator = more species diversity

species richness: evolutionary history

the longer a species have been established in an area, the more complex + healthier the interspecific interactions / coevolutionary relationships

species richness: disturbances

regular/ moderate disturbances support the most species diversity

species richness: biogeographic hotspots

regions with high species diversity but most important high incidence of endemic species

endemic species

species found there but nowhere else on the planet

threatened species

@ risk of becoming endangered in the forseable future

endangered

@ risk of being extirpated or extinct in the foreseeable future

extirpated

no longer present in part of its historical range

extinct

no longer in existence

background extinction occurs at a …… rate

constant

what are the factors of extinction events

• small pop size

• small geographic range

• niche is specific

mass extinction is ..% of higher taxa

50%

higher taxa means …… species level

above, so

domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus

threats to biodiversity

• global warming

• habitat loss

• overharvesting

• introduction of exotic species

• removal of natural predators

how is global warming a threat to biodiversity?

when species spread out of historic range and enter new areas where they have no evolutionary history, these animals bring new diseases

how is habitat loss a threat to biodiversity?

• this is bad for nature

• closer contact with disease carrying agents, if you remove the host, they seek a new host

how does over harvesting a threat to biodiversity?

this affects wild populations

• this interrupts coevolutionary relationships (fish)

how is the introduction of exotic species a threat to biodiversity?

it disturbs coevolutionary relations = competitive exclusion

• pythons in zoos (in florida)

• cats → hunt for fun, and literally kill everything

how is the removal of natural predators a threat to biodiversity?

• disturbs cove relationships

• snakes, bobcats, wolves,bears

how to deal with snakes

• use ration/ common sense

• appreciate their role in the ecosystem (they kill rodents)

• appreciate how human health benefits

  !!!! LEAVE THEM ALONE !!!!

explain society in middle dark ages

God + Pope + Church are the ultimate authority

king is appointed by God

your socioeconomic position is the will of God

the Bible is written in latin and most people can’t read or speak it

the church condones torture to certain confessions

525

this is known as Benedicts rule

all of the monks are req to make copies of the Bible

750

Charlemagne established schools in the abbeys (monasteries), so the rich get educated

1250

islamic people enter Spain from north Africa, reintroduce the wisdom of Ancient Greece to Europe

1400-1600

• this Is the renaissance and reformation period

this is the rebirth of learning

humanist movement

you have the power to change your destiny/ position through education

reformation makes ppl see discrepancies between what the church does

• takes place during the reformation period

what movement lead to the protestant reformation?

the humanist movement

1600

• age of reason and enlightenment

Thomas paine

reason is the ultimate authority

seek God’s divine order in nature

which time period introduced the scientist naturalist and theologian roles?

enlightenment period

Ancient Greek scale of nature

this is a classification system based on importance

examples of the Ancient Greek scale of nature:

gods

people

fish

potatoes

cattle

chicken

goats

wheat

Carl Yvonne linne

creates a new classification system based on God’s divine order in nature

• this was based on anatomical similarities and differences

• he’s right most of the time

• Darwin later adopts the concept “relatedness of species”

“relatedness of species”

a term Darwin adopted based on carl Yvonne lines classification system

Hutton

• geologist

• adopted the concept of gradualism

gradualism

large geographic features are the product of natural process occurring @ a slow and constant rate (Grand Canyon)

• this removes the supernatural element

• this proposed the earth is more older than we thought

jean baptiste Lamarck

• 1st person to propose a mechanism 4 evolution

use and disuse traits

inheritance of acquired characters

use and disuse (Lamarck)

traits that aren’t necessary become vestiges (during the lifetime of an org)

inheritance of acquired characters

these traits are passed on to their offspring

Cuvier

• he collected and studied fossils from plaster mines and he noticed that each layer of the mines has a distinct fossil community

• catastrophism

1st person to suggest a species can go extinct, which Darwin will use later

catastrophism

God wipes out existing communities and replaces it with new creation

Lyell

• he was a geologist

• modifies huttons gradualism

introduced the idea of uniformitarianism

uniformitarianism

large geographic feature are the product of natural process that occur slowly at a constant rate that continue to this day

Darwin studied …. when he was in med school

beetles

after Darwin quit med school he went to …. school

divinity

when Darwin went to divinity school he adopts what role?

scientist/ naturalist/ theologian role

Darwin joined the voyage of the …

Beagle

Darwin joined the voyage of the Beagle as the ….. to the captain

companion

what did Darwin see on his voyage?

they ended up in S. America

• He noticed that the plants, animals, and fossils weren’t anything like the creatures in Europe

• Darwin noticed that plants, animals, and fossils are more similar to each other than anything occupying a similar niche in Europe

• he saw earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruption ( saw dramatic change to the coastline)

what did Darwin notice in the Galapagos?

• islands may be great places to see evolution occurring (small scale)

Darwin notice in the Galapagos that islands may be great places to see evolution occurring (small scale) IF

1. its far enough from the mainland to prevent back and forth traffic

2. its the right size

   • large enough to support a pop, small enough that the pop reaches K (carrying capacity fairly quickly)

Darwin collected …. in the Galapagos

finches

what did Darwin notice about the finches on the multiple islands?

Darwins observations (1&2 Galapagos)

1. all pops have the reproductive ability to increase in size over the generations

2. eventually, there will be more orgs in a population than the available resources can provide for

Darwins observations (3&4 Galapagos)

3. within a pop, most individuals have the same traits, which are heritable

4. these traits occur in slightly varied forms (polymorphisms)

Darwins 1st intereference (Galapagos)

individuals within a population will eventually compete for resources

Darwin’s conclusion (Galapagos)

the individuals with differential repro success (int 2) will produce more offspring that carry the alles that confer this advantage

Darwins 2nd interference (Galapagos)

some phenotypes give and advantage to the individual which means that there is an increased change of survival

Wallace

studied 4 several years in the pacific and independently developed the same hypothesis as Darwin

• he publishes in 1859

• Darwin punished in 1860 and darwijngets the credit

when we look at changes we look at ….

populations

• they show change over time

three categories of evolution

• micro

• macro

• artificial selection

micro evolution

a shift in allele frequency in a pop

• this is something we can see because it is small scale

• most likely won’t result in a new species

• if it does, it would be something small like red woodpecker yellow woodpecker

macro evolution

an accumulation of mircro evolution events that result in a large scale change

• we can’t see bc it takes too long

(dino → bird)

class → class (high order bc its above species level)

artificial selection

people breed plants/animals to amplify traits that they find desirable

• horses - we bred them to pull cattle, now we just ride

• plants- we turned mustard seed to cabbage, broccoli, Brussels

no new species

mechanisms for microevolution

• natural selection

• mutation

• gene flow

• non-random mating

• genetic drift

• non-random mating

natural selection (mechanisms for microevolution)

an org that has an advantage in foraging, hunting, camp, or predative arrangements

• lives longer + produces more offspring

• carries advantagoues trait

mutation (mechanisms for microevolution)

occur @ constant rate in order for a mutation to occur/enter in a pop, must be a copying area in miosis

• typically neutral effect but can also be positive or negative

• hox genes

hox genes

genes that control embryonic development in animals

• very similar in all animals

• scientist propose that all the animals diversity on the planet is due to mutations within the hox genes

gene flow (mechanisms for microevolution)

orgs enter + leave populations, taking their genes with them

genetic drift (mechanisms for microevolution)

a random event changes the gene pool

• pop size is reduced + the new gene pool differs dramatically from the parent (where you came from) gene pool

• bottle neck + fonder effect

bottle neck

• most of the population dies

(cheetas)

founder effect

a segment of a population is separated from the main pop

• possums and finches

3 types of non-random mating

• male competition

• female mate choice

• sexual selection

male competition (non-random mating)

males compete to determine hierarchy

• the dominant male mates those traits get passed on

female mate choice (non-random mating)

females choose the best males

sexual selection (non-random mating)

trait confers increased reproductive output + either:

• doesn’t affect survivorship

• negatively affects survivorship

sexual dimorphism

sexual dimorphism

male and female look different without looking at genetalia

fossil record

a chronology of life on earth when ancient orgs lived on earth

fossil

any representation of life on earth- when ancient orgs lived on earth

body fossil

represent the body of the org (anatomy)

trace fossil

non body evidence of life

• the environment (in ancient times)

paleoecology

the study of ancient env

fossilization process

1. org must die in such a manner that the carcass is protected from scavengers

2. soft tissue is eaten by bacteria

3. millions of years pass by, soil accumulates on top the weight of the soil forces organic materials on top of the bones , minerals from the soil replace the organic materials

4. millions of years pass and erosion can expose them in the air

t or f: fossilization is very common

false- fossilization is is uncommon

a pop that is represented by fossils was probably …… (small/large) and ……. (healthy/unhealthy)

large

healthy

• successful at foraging, camouflage, etc

a population that is represented by fossils was at its evolutionary …… when fossilized

peak

how are fossils dated?

1. relative

2. radiometric dating

relative dating

based on the rock layer that the fossil is in

ex: jurassic, cretaceous, upper lower etc

or

they can compare fossil location to index fossils

index fossils

those (fossils) of a known age (younger/older)

radiometric dating

this is carbondating

• when an org dies, its C14 continues to decay, since the atmosphere has a constant ratio of c12 and c14, the orgs make the ratio change

• scientists can determine the c12 and c14 ratio in dead and organic material and calc when the org dies

problem with radiometric dating

in fossilized bones, most of the organic matter is gone and the carbon ratios can’t be determined so INSTEAD we use radioactive elements (volcanic ash, potassium. 4) to date the soil around the bones

what do fossils show us?

we can see anatomical features over time

wegener

he was a meteorologist

• served in ww1

• mapped The Atlantic Ocean floor

• mid Atlantic ridge

• proposed cont-drift

he died trying to prove his theories

mid atlantic ridge

saw that Europe, North America, Africa, line up here

continental drift

continents floar on the crust and plow thru the crust like a ship plowing through ice

plate techtonics

this was studied by alfred wegner, but this is our modern definition

• basically states that continents are apart of the crust

• the crust is divided into large touching plates that are in constant motion