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Motivation
Factors of differing strength that energize, direct, and sustain behavior
motivation is activating
it stimulates us to do something
motivation is directive
guides our behaviors towards meeting specific goals or needs
Satisfaction of needs
"need"
A state of biological or social deficiency
Need hierarchy (proposed by abraham maslow)
An arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs
Lowest priority to Highest priority
Lowest is "self-actualization"
living to ones full potential. achieving personal dreams and aspirations
next is "esteem"
good self opinion, accomplishments, reputation
belonging and love
acceptance, friendship
safety
security, protection, freedom from threats
high level of priority is "physiological"
food, water, warmth, oxygen, sleep
Drive
A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to engage in a behavior to satisfy a need
Basic biological drives, such as thirst or hunger, help animals maintain a stable condition. A stable condition is also called equilibrium
Homeostasis
tendency for bodily functions to remain in equilibrium
Arousal
Physiological activation (such as increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses (such as increased heart rate, sweating, or muscle tension)
Incentives
External objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors
EXAMPLE: good grade on exam is an incentive for studying hard
Yerkes-Dodson law
describes the relationship between arousal, motivation, and performance
This law states that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point. After that point, more arousal will result in decreasing performance. A graph of this relationship is shaped like an upside-down U
too little arousal means bored, too much arousal is too much stress or anxiety
optimal level of arousal
Everyone is motivated to engage in behaviors based on their own optimal level of arousal
Pleasure
Sigmund Freud proposed that needs are satisfied based on the pleasure principle. According to Freud, the pleasure principle motivates people to seek pleasure and avoid pain
EXAMPLE: eating dessert even when youre full
Extrinsic motivation
A desire to perform an activity because of the external goals toward which that activity is directed. desire to achieve external goal.
Intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose
EXAMPLE: reading a book just for enjoyment
self-determination theory
extrinsic rewards may reduce the intrinsic value of an activity because such rewards undermine our feeling that we are choosing to do something for ourselves
IN CONTRAST, feeling free to choose makes us feel good about ourselves and inspires us to do our most creative work.
self-perception theory
we are seldom aware of our specific motives. Instead, we make inferences about our motives according to what seems to make the most sense.
Henry Murray
basic psycho-social needs
needs for power, autonomy, achievement, and play
Challenging goals encourage effort, persistence, and concentration
Self-efficacy
the expectation that your efforts will lead to success
Achievement motivation
The need, or desire, to attain a certain standard of excellence
Delayed gratification
The ability to delay gratification is an indicator of success in life
can lead to better SAT scores and school grades
Need to belong theory
The need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes
Stomach and bloodstream
People who have had their stomachs surgically removed due to illness continue to report feeling hungry even though they no longer have a stomach
glucose
the primary fuel for metabolism and is crucial for neuronal activity
Leptin
A hormone that is associated with decreasing eating behavior based on long-term body fat regulation.
leptin travels to hypothalamus, the brain region that controls many homeostatic systems. stops eating behavior makes food less appetizing
Ghrelin
A hormone that is associated with increasing eating behavior based on short-term signals in the bloodstream
originates in stomach
The brain
The hypothalamus
the brain structure that most influences eating
Seeing tasty food makes a person crave it, and this response is associated with activity in the limbic system
Conditioned to eat
The internal clock leads to various anticipatory responses that motivate eating behavior and prepare the body for digestion
EXAMPLE: eating at lunch time
Familiarity and eating preferences
People's avoidance of unfamiliar foods, which may be dangerous or poisonous, makes evolutionary sense and is adaptive
What we prefer to eat is also determined by the ethnic, cultural, and religious values of our own upbringing and experiences
Cultural influences
Even when people are starving to death, they may refuse to eat perfectly nutritious substances because they are culturally unfamiliar
Alfred Kinsey
evidence that women's sexual attitudes and behaviors were in many ways similar to those of men.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Sexual response cycle
A four-stage pattern of physiological and psychological responses during sexual activity
The stages are:
Excitement phase, Plateau phase, Orgasm phase, Resolution phase, males experience "refractory period"
Hormones
Hormones influence physical development of the brain and body during puberty. They also influence sexual behavior through motivation
Androgens
A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in males; testosterone is one example
Estrogens
A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in females; estradiol is one example
Cultural Rules Shape Sexual Interactions
Cultures may seek to restrain and control sex for a variety of reasons, including maintaining control over the birthrate, helping to establish paternity, and reducing conflicts
Gender differences in sexual behavior
Double standard
premarital sex is morally and socially acceptable for men, not women
Sexual strategies theory
Women and men have evolved distinct mating strategies because they have faced different adaptive problems over the course of human history. The strategies used by each sex maximize the probability of passing along their genes to future generations
Mate preferences
In seeking mates, both sexes avoid certain characteristics, such as insensitivity, bad manners, loudness or shrillness, and the tendency to brag about sexual conquests
In a study of 92 married couples in 37 cultures, women were observed generally to prefer men who were considerate, honest, dependable, kind, understanding, fond of children, well liked by others, good earners, ambitious, career oriented, from a good family, and fairly tall.
Men tended to value good looks, cooking skills, and sexual faithfulness
Biological factors in sexual orientation
The best available evidence suggests that prenatal exposure to hormones might play some role in sexual orientation
Some research suggests the hypothalamus may be related to sexual orientation
Although these findings are thought-provoking, there is currently not enough evidence to establish a causal connection between brain regions and sexual orientation
Stability of sexual orientation
There is no good evidence that sexual orientation can be changed through therapy
Bisexual people are sexually attracted to people of both sexes and sometimes have sexual relationships with people of both sexes
Emotion
Feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs
Primary emotions
Evolutionarily adaptive emotions that are shared across cultures and associated with specific physical states; they include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and possibly surprise and contempt
Secondary emotions
Blends of primary emotions; they include remorse, guilt, shame, submission, and anticipation
James-Lange theory
Emotions result from the experience of physiological reactions in the body
we exp specific patterns of bodily responses
explains emotions based on our bodily responses
Facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions trigger the experience of emotions, not the other way around
///Cannon-Bard theory
check textbook page 331
focuses on how the brain process information
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
a situation evokes both a physiological response , such as arousal, and a cognitive interpretation
focuses on our thought processes
emotion label
the cognitive interpretation ^
when we experience arousal, we search for its source so we can explain it cognitively.
misattribution of arousal
mistaken identification of the source of our arousal
excitation transfer
similar form of misattribution
leftover physiological arousal caused by one event is trasnferred to a new stimulus
after exercising, one might be likely to transfer residual excitation from the exercise to any event that occurs.
polygraph
lie detector
because of their emotions, they will have physical reactions that show up on the polygraph
ex: frightened= tense muscles and fast heartbeat
The amygdala
The amygdala processes the emotional significance of stimuli, and it generates immediate emotional and behavioral reactions
Information reaches the amygdala along two separate pathways
The first path is a "quick and dirty" system that processes sensory information nearly instantaneously
The second path is somewhat slower, but it leads to more deliberate and more thorough evaluations
It is involved in the perception of social stimuli
We "read" someone's facial expressions; the amygdala helps us interpret them
The prefrontal cortex
There is evidence that the left and right frontal lobes are affected by different emotions
right = negative emotion
Injury to the frontal lobes often impairs emotional experience, may hinder motivation
Reappraisal
we directly alter our emotional reactions to events by thinking about those events in more NEUTRAL TERMS.
humor
laughter improves immune system, stimulates release of hormones, dopamine, serotonin, endorphins
rises in circulation, blood pressure, skin temperature, and heart rate, along with a decrease in pain perception
thought suppression
trying not to feel or respond to the emotion at all. can lead to REBOUND EFFECT
rebound effect
we think about something even more than before
rumination
thinking about, elaborating, and focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings. hampers distraction
distraction
thinking about something else
Charles Darwin
1872 book, Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals
argued that expressive aspects of emotion are adaptive because they communicate how we are feeling
Eyes and mouth
We convey emotional information by means of our eyes and mouth
Facial expression across cultures
Research has found general support for cross-cultural identification of some facial expressions
Support is strongest for happiness and weakest for fear and disgust
Facial expression of pride
Researchers found that isolated populations with minimal Western contact accurately identify the physical signs of pride. These signs include a smiling face, raised arms, an expanded chest, and a pushed-out torso
Display rules
Rules that are learned through socialization and that dictate what emotions are suitable in certain situations
From culture to culture, display rules tend to be different for women and men
Affect-as-information theory
People use their current moods to make decisions, judgments, and appraisals, even if they do not know the sources of their moods
Decision making
Emotions influence our decision making in different ways.
For example, anticipating how different choices might make us feel can serve as a guide in decision making
Emotion affects judgments
In a study, people in good moods rated their lives as satisfactory, whereas people in bad moods gave lower overall ratings
Guilt strengthens social bonds
A negative emotional state associated with anxiety, tension, and agitation
There is evidence that socialization is more important than biology in determining specifically how children experience guilt
Embarrassment and blushing
People feel embarrassed after violating a cultural norm, doing something clumsy, being teased, or experiencing a threat to their self-image
Blushing occurs most often when people believe others might view them negatively and communicates an understanding that some type of social awkwardness has occurred
CH10
Health psychology
A field that integrates research on health and on psychology; it involves the application of psychological principles in promoting health and well-being
Well-being
A positive state that includes striving for optimal health and life satisfaction
Biopsychosocial model
A model of health that integrates the effects of biological, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness
ex: anxiety leads to weight gain, weight gain leads to anxiety
Body mass index
A ratio of body weight to height, used to measure obesity
Fewer than 15 percent of the U.S. population met the criteria for obesity in 1980, but more than 35 percent met the criteria in 2010
World Health Organization, obesity has doubled around the globe since 1980
Overeating
Most individuals who lose weight through dieting eventually regain the weight. Often, these individuals gain back more than they lost
Overweight people show more activity in the reward regions of the brain when they look at good-tasting foods than do individuals who are at an optimal weight
Genetic influence
Researchers found that the BMI of adopted children was strongly related to the BMI of their biological parents and not at all to the BMI of their adoptive parents
The stigma of obesity
Perceiving oneself as overweight is linked to depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem
Not all cultures stigmatize obesity. In some developing countries, being obese is a sign of being a member of the upper class
The upper classes in Western cultures have a clear preference for very thin body types, as exemplified in the fashion industry
Restrictive dieting
Most diets fail primarily because of the body's natural defense against weight loss. Body weight is regulated around a set point determined mainly by genetic influence.
Although it is possible to alter body weight, the body responds to weight loss by slowing down metabolism and using less energy
Disordered eating
Anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by excessive fear of becoming fat and therefore restricting energy intake to obtain a significantly low body weight
Fewer than 1 in 100 meet the clinical criteria of anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by dieting, binge eating, and purging
Approximately 1 to 2 percent of women in high school and college meet the criteria for bulimia nervosa
Disordered eating
Binge-eating disorder
Compared to bulimia, binge-eating disorder is more common among males and ethnic minorities
smoking
Despite overwhelming evidence that smoking cigarettes leads to premature death, millions around the globe continue to light up
Thirty percent of all smokers worldwide are in China
Smoking causes numerous health problems. Examples include heart disease, respiratory ailments, and various cancers
In the 1990s every day, nearly 5,000 Americans aged 11 to 17 smoked their first cigarette
Most researchers point to powerful social influences as the leading cause of adolescent smoking
Adolescents might also be affected by media images of smokers
By the 12th grade, 50 percent to 70 percent of adolescents in the United States have had some experience with tobacco products
exercise
Exercise is an essential element of any weight control program
Research clearly shows the benefits of exercise in almost every aspect of our lives, including enhanced memory and improved cognition
It is never too late to start exercising and receiving its positive benefits
Stress
A group of behavioral, mental, and physical processes occurring when events match or exceed the organism's ability to respond in a healthy way
Stressor
An environmental event or stimulus that threatens an organism
Stress responses
Physical, behavioral, and/or psychological responses to stressors
Mediating factors can increase or decrease the likelihood that a stressor will elicit a stress response
Major life stressors
Daily hassles
Large disruptions, especially unpredictable and uncontrollable catastrophic events, that affect central areas of people's live
Everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health
Immune system
The body's mechanism for dealing with invading microorganisms, such as allergens, bacteria, and viruses
General adaptation syndrome
A consistent pattern of physical responses to stress that consists of three stages—alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
Immune response
More than 300 studies have demonstrated that short-term stress boosts the immune system—such as occurs during the end of the fight-or-flight response—whereas CHRONIC STRESS weakens it, leaving the body less able to deal with infection
Fight-or-flight response
The physiological preparedness of animals to deal with danger
Within seconds or minutes, the fight-or-flight response enables the organism to direct its energy to dealing with the threat
Tend-and-befriend response
Females' tendency to respond to stressors by protecting and caring for their offspring and forming social alliances
Negative stress responses
When people are stressed, they also eat junk food, smoke cigarettes, use drugs, and drink
Type A behavior pattern
Personality traits characterized by competitiveness, achievement orientation, aggressiveness, hostility, restlessness, impatience with others, and an inability to relax
Type B behavior pattern
Personality traits characterized by being noncompetitive, relaxed, easygoing, and accommodating