Psych ch 9 & 10 ("psychology in your life")

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116 Terms

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Motivation

Factors of differing strength that energize, direct, and sustain behavior

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motivation is activating

it stimulates us to do something

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motivation is directive

guides our behaviors towards meeting specific goals or needs

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Satisfaction of needs
"need"

A state of biological or social deficiency

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Need hierarchy (proposed by abraham maslow)

An arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs

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Lowest priority to Highest priority
Lowest is "self-actualization"

living to ones full potential. achieving personal dreams and aspirations

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next is "esteem"

good self opinion, accomplishments, reputation

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belonging and love

acceptance, friendship

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safety

security, protection, freedom from threats

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high level of priority is "physiological"

food, water, warmth, oxygen, sleep

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Drive

A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to engage in a behavior to satisfy a need

Basic biological drives, such as thirst or hunger, help animals maintain a stable condition. A stable condition is also called equilibrium

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Homeostasis

tendency for bodily functions to remain in equilibrium

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Arousal

Physiological activation (such as increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses (such as increased heart rate, sweating, or muscle tension)

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Incentives

External objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors
EXAMPLE: good grade on exam is an incentive for studying hard

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Yerkes-Dodson law

describes the relationship between arousal, motivation, and performance

This law states that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point. After that point, more arousal will result in decreasing performance. A graph of this relationship is shaped like an upside-down U

too little arousal means bored, too much arousal is too much stress or anxiety

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optimal level of arousal

Everyone is motivated to engage in behaviors based on their own optimal level of arousal

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Pleasure

Sigmund Freud proposed that needs are satisfied based on the pleasure principle. According to Freud, the pleasure principle motivates people to seek pleasure and avoid pain

EXAMPLE: eating dessert even when youre full

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Extrinsic motivation

A desire to perform an activity because of the external goals toward which that activity is directed. desire to achieve external goal.

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Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose
EXAMPLE: reading a book just for enjoyment

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self-determination theory

extrinsic rewards may reduce the intrinsic value of an activity because such rewards undermine our feeling that we are choosing to do something for ourselves

IN CONTRAST, feeling free to choose makes us feel good about ourselves and inspires us to do our most creative work.

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self-perception theory

we are seldom aware of our specific motives. Instead, we make inferences about our motives according to what seems to make the most sense.

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Henry Murray
basic psycho-social needs

needs for power, autonomy, achievement, and play

Challenging goals encourage effort, persistence, and concentration

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Self-efficacy

the expectation that your efforts will lead to success

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Achievement motivation

The need, or desire, to attain a certain standard of excellence

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Delayed gratification

The ability to delay gratification is an indicator of success in life

can lead to better SAT scores and school grades

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Need to belong theory

The need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes

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Stomach and bloodstream

People who have had their stomachs surgically removed due to illness continue to report feeling hungry even though they no longer have a stomach

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glucose

the primary fuel for metabolism and is crucial for neuronal activity

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Leptin

A hormone that is associated with decreasing eating behavior based on long-term body fat regulation.

leptin travels to hypothalamus, the brain region that controls many homeostatic systems. stops eating behavior makes food less appetizing

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Ghrelin

A hormone that is associated with increasing eating behavior based on short-term signals in the bloodstream

originates in stomach

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The brain
The hypothalamus

the brain structure that most influences eating

Seeing tasty food makes a person crave it, and this response is associated with activity in the limbic system

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Conditioned to eat

The internal clock leads to various anticipatory responses that motivate eating behavior and prepare the body for digestion

EXAMPLE: eating at lunch time

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Familiarity and eating preferences

People's avoidance of unfamiliar foods, which may be dangerous or poisonous, makes evolutionary sense and is adaptive

What we prefer to eat is also determined by the ethnic, cultural, and religious values of our own upbringing and experiences

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Cultural influences

Even when people are starving to death, they may refuse to eat perfectly nutritious substances because they are culturally unfamiliar

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Alfred Kinsey

evidence that women's sexual attitudes and behaviors were in many ways similar to those of men.

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William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Sexual response cycle

A four-stage pattern of physiological and psychological responses during sexual activity

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The stages are:

Excitement phase, Plateau phase, Orgasm phase, Resolution phase, males experience "refractory period"

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Hormones

Hormones influence physical development of the brain and body during puberty. They also influence sexual behavior through motivation

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Androgens

A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in males; testosterone is one example

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Estrogens

A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in females; estradiol is one example

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Cultural Rules Shape Sexual Interactions

Cultures may seek to restrain and control sex for a variety of reasons, including maintaining control over the birthrate, helping to establish paternity, and reducing conflicts

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Gender differences in sexual behavior
Double standard

premarital sex is morally and socially acceptable for men, not women

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Sexual strategies theory

Women and men have evolved distinct mating strategies because they have faced different adaptive problems over the course of human history. The strategies used by each sex maximize the probability of passing along their genes to future generations

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Mate preferences

In seeking mates, both sexes avoid certain characteristics, such as insensitivity, bad manners, loudness or shrillness, and the tendency to brag about sexual conquests

In a study of 92 married couples in 37 cultures, women were observed generally to prefer men who were considerate, honest, dependable, kind, understanding, fond of children, well liked by others, good earners, ambitious, career oriented, from a good family, and fairly tall.

Men tended to value good looks, cooking skills, and sexual faithfulness

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Biological factors in sexual orientation

The best available evidence suggests that prenatal exposure to hormones might play some role in sexual orientation

Some research suggests the hypothalamus may be related to sexual orientation

Although these findings are thought-provoking, there is currently not enough evidence to establish a causal connection between brain regions and sexual orientation

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Stability of sexual orientation

There is no good evidence that sexual orientation can be changed through therapy

Bisexual people are sexually attracted to people of both sexes and sometimes have sexual relationships with people of both sexes

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Emotion

Feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs

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Primary emotions

Evolutionarily adaptive emotions that are shared across cultures and associated with specific physical states; they include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and possibly surprise and contempt

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Secondary emotions

Blends of primary emotions; they include remorse, guilt, shame, submission, and anticipation

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James-Lange theory

Emotions result from the experience of physiological reactions in the body

we exp specific patterns of bodily responses

explains emotions based on our bodily responses

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Facial feedback hypothesis

facial expressions trigger the experience of emotions, not the other way around

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///Cannon-Bard theory

check textbook page 331

focuses on how the brain process information

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Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

a situation evokes both a physiological response , such as arousal, and a cognitive interpretation

focuses on our thought processes

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emotion label

the cognitive interpretation ^

when we experience arousal, we search for its source so we can explain it cognitively.

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misattribution of arousal

mistaken identification of the source of our arousal

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excitation transfer

similar form of misattribution

leftover physiological arousal caused by one event is trasnferred to a new stimulus

after exercising, one might be likely to transfer residual excitation from the exercise to any event that occurs.

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polygraph

lie detector

because of their emotions, they will have physical reactions that show up on the polygraph

ex: frightened= tense muscles and fast heartbeat

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The amygdala

The amygdala processes the emotional significance of stimuli, and it generates immediate emotional and behavioral reactions

Information reaches the amygdala along two separate pathways

The first path is a "quick and dirty" system that processes sensory information nearly instantaneously

The second path is somewhat slower, but it leads to more deliberate and more thorough evaluations

It is involved in the perception of social stimuli

We "read" someone's facial expressions; the amygdala helps us interpret them

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The prefrontal cortex

There is evidence that the left and right frontal lobes are affected by different emotions

right = negative emotion

Injury to the frontal lobes often impairs emotional experience, may hinder motivation

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Reappraisal

we directly alter our emotional reactions to events by thinking about those events in more NEUTRAL TERMS.

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humor

laughter improves immune system, stimulates release of hormones, dopamine, serotonin, endorphins

rises in circulation, blood pressure, skin temperature, and heart rate, along with a decrease in pain perception

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thought suppression

trying not to feel or respond to the emotion at all. can lead to REBOUND EFFECT

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rebound effect

we think about something even more than before

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rumination

thinking about, elaborating, and focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings. hampers distraction

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distraction

thinking about something else

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Charles Darwin

1872 book, Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals

argued that expressive aspects of emotion are adaptive because they communicate how we are feeling

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Eyes and mouth

We convey emotional information by means of our eyes and mouth

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Facial expression across cultures

Research has found general support for cross-cultural identification of some facial expressions

Support is strongest for happiness and weakest for fear and disgust

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Facial expression of pride

Researchers found that isolated populations with minimal Western contact accurately identify the physical signs of pride. These signs include a smiling face, raised arms, an expanded chest, and a pushed-out torso

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Display rules

Rules that are learned through socialization and that dictate what emotions are suitable in certain situations

From culture to culture, display rules tend to be different for women and men

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Affect-as-information theory

People use their current moods to make decisions, judgments, and appraisals, even if they do not know the sources of their moods

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Decision making

Emotions influence our decision making in different ways.

For example, anticipating how different choices might make us feel can serve as a guide in decision making

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Emotion affects judgments

In a study, people in good moods rated their lives as satisfactory, whereas people in bad moods gave lower overall ratings

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Guilt strengthens social bonds

A negative emotional state associated with anxiety, tension, and agitation

There is evidence that socialization is more important than biology in determining specifically how children experience guilt

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Embarrassment and blushing

People feel embarrassed after violating a cultural norm, doing something clumsy, being teased, or experiencing a threat to their self-image

Blushing occurs most often when people believe others might view them negatively and communicates an understanding that some type of social awkwardness has occurred

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CH10
Health psychology

A field that integrates research on health and on psychology; it involves the application of psychological principles in promoting health and well-being

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Well-being

A positive state that includes striving for optimal health and life satisfaction

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Biopsychosocial model

A model of health that integrates the effects of biological, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness

ex: anxiety leads to weight gain, weight gain leads to anxiety

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Body mass index

A ratio of body weight to height, used to measure obesity

Fewer than 15 percent of the U.S. population met the criteria for obesity in 1980, but more than 35 percent met the criteria in 2010

World Health Organization, obesity has doubled around the globe since 1980

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Overeating

Most individuals who lose weight through dieting eventually regain the weight. Often, these individuals gain back more than they lost

Overweight people show more activity in the reward regions of the brain when they look at good-tasting foods than do individuals who are at an optimal weight

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Genetic influence

Researchers found that the BMI of adopted children was strongly related to the BMI of their biological parents and not at all to the BMI of their adoptive parents

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The stigma of obesity

Perceiving oneself as overweight is linked to depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem

Not all cultures stigmatize obesity. In some developing countries, being obese is a sign of being a member of the upper class

The upper classes in Western cultures have a clear preference for very thin body types, as exemplified in the fashion industry

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Restrictive dieting

Most diets fail primarily because of the body's natural defense against weight loss. Body weight is regulated around a set point determined mainly by genetic influence.

Although it is possible to alter body weight, the body responds to weight loss by slowing down metabolism and using less energy

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Disordered eating
Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by excessive fear of becoming fat and therefore restricting energy intake to obtain a significantly low body weight

Fewer than 1 in 100 meet the clinical criteria of anorexia nervosa

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Bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by dieting, binge eating, and purging

Approximately 1 to 2 percent of women in high school and college meet the criteria for bulimia nervosa

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Disordered eating
Binge-eating disorder

Compared to bulimia, binge-eating disorder is more common among males and ethnic minorities

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smoking

Despite overwhelming evidence that smoking cigarettes leads to premature death, millions around the globe continue to light up

Thirty percent of all smokers worldwide are in China

Smoking causes numerous health problems. Examples include heart disease, respiratory ailments, and various cancers

In the 1990s every day, nearly 5,000 Americans aged 11 to 17 smoked their first cigarette
Most researchers point to powerful social influences as the leading cause of adolescent smoking
Adolescents might also be affected by media images of smokers

By the 12th grade, 50 percent to 70 percent of adolescents in the United States have had some experience with tobacco products

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exercise

Exercise is an essential element of any weight control program
Research clearly shows the benefits of exercise in almost every aspect of our lives, including enhanced memory and improved cognition
It is never too late to start exercising and receiving its positive benefits

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Stress

A group of behavioral, mental, and physical processes occurring when events match or exceed the organism's ability to respond in a healthy way

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Stressor

An environmental event or stimulus that threatens an organism

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Stress responses

Physical, behavioral, and/or psychological responses to stressors
Mediating factors can increase or decrease the likelihood that a stressor will elicit a stress response

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Major life stressors



Daily hassles

Large disruptions, especially unpredictable and uncontrollable catastrophic events, that affect central areas of people's live

Everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health

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Immune system

The body's mechanism for dealing with invading microorganisms, such as allergens, bacteria, and viruses

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General adaptation syndrome

A consistent pattern of physical responses to stress that consists of three stages—alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

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Immune response

More than 300 studies have demonstrated that short-term stress boosts the immune system—such as occurs during the end of the fight-or-flight response—whereas CHRONIC STRESS weakens it, leaving the body less able to deal with infection

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Fight-or-flight response

The physiological preparedness of animals to deal with danger

Within seconds or minutes, the fight-or-flight response enables the organism to direct its energy to dealing with the threat

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Tend-and-befriend response

Females' tendency to respond to stressors by protecting and caring for their offspring and forming social alliances

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Negative stress responses

When people are stressed, they also eat junk food, smoke cigarettes, use drugs, and drink

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Type A behavior pattern

Personality traits characterized by competitiveness, achievement orientation, aggressiveness, hostility, restlessness, impatience with others, and an inability to relax

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Type B behavior pattern

Personality traits characterized by being noncompetitive, relaxed, easygoing, and accommodating