psych final study guide chap 7

reflexes and instincts

motor or neural reactions to stimuli n the environemtn typically involving a specific body part of system

innate bhaviorus that can be triggered/facilitated by our environemtn

allows for adaptation to one’s environemtn

learning

lasting change caused by experience, study, or practice, has to be inferred from behaviour, two major categories

non-associative learning definition

learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli, change resulting from experiences with a single sensory cue

associative learning definition

a change as a result of experience where two or more stimuli become linked

non-associative learning description

repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event causing a relatively permanent change in the strength of a response

considered the most basic and simplest form of learninga nd involves two major types

types of non-associative learning

1. habituation - repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response (learned ignoring)

   1. dishabituation: full strength recovery of the habituated response

2. sensitization - a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of a weaker stimuli

associative learning description

link two events that occur close togehter in time (ex. knowing ? means question)

three basic learning paradigms

learning paradigms of associative learning

1. classical conditioning - same response to different stimuli

2. operant conditioning - response based on what will follow

3. observational learning (modelling) - response based on observations or imitation of others

classical conditioning

two previously unrelated stimuli are now associated, resulting in a elearned response

natural reflex

automatic involuntary response that typically occurs without learning

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus that causes the reflexive response (ex. food)

unconditioned response

reflexive response, doesn’t need to be learned (ex. salivation)

conditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (ex. bell)

conditioned response

response elicited by a conditioned stimulu - usually the same as the unconditioned response, but has been learned (ex. salivation)

higher-order conditioning

when previously conditioned stimulus (CS) functions as if it were unconditioned stimulus (US) for further conditioning

(ex.bell was CS, lab assistants paired with CS, now lab assistants are CS2 and can elicit CR)

acquisition

initial learning of stimulus-response relationship; most rapid acquisition followed by strongest response is a half minute delay between CS and US

frequency and timing of pairing

conditioned taste aversion

previously neutral stimulus elicits an aversive reaction after it’s paired iwht illness

biological adaptation

extinction

reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentation of the condisitioned stimulus alone

(reduction in salivation when bell is rung but no food shows up)

spontaneous recovery

re-emergence of CR sometimes as extinction has occurred

stimulus generalization

what happens when the stimuli similar to the original CS trigger the same CR (dogs respond to every research assistant)

stimulus discrimination

when we learn to discriminate between the cs and other similar stimuli

phobias

extreme, irrational, persisitent fears of specific objects or situations, many of which pose little to no danger

abnormally rapid activity in amygdala

systematic desensitization

a process used to cindition extinction of phobias through gradual and repeated exposure to the feared object or situation

(activates areas of prefrontal cortex which help with inhibition)

operant/instrumental conditioning

behaviour is modified depending on its consequences (associative learning is voluntary rather than reflexive)

law of effect

bejaviours are selected by their consequences

(bejaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, behaviour prpducing unpleasantness are unlkely to occur again, response was instrumental to receiveing the reward)

reinforcer

an experience that produces an increase in a certain behaviour

positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur (ex. stickers for prosocial behaviour)

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur (ex. addicts escape cravings and other symptoms of withdrawal by taking the drug)

punishment

an experience that produces a decrease in certain bejaviour

positive punishment

presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a behavior to decrease the probability that the behavior will reoccur

negative punishment

removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a bejaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour reoccuring (ex. no car or phone privileges)

positive reinforcement example

singing potty song after using potty

positive punishment example

yelling at a child if they wake you up so they can use the bathroom

primary reinforcer

stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsially rewarding (ex. food)

secondary reinforcer

neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer (ex. money, grades, acceptance)

primary punisher

a stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism (ex. shock or extreme temperature)

secondary punisher

neutral stimulus that become aversive when associated with a primary punisher (ex. disapproval, indifference, criticism)

shaping

introducing new behavior by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behaviour

behavior modification

systematic approach to change behavior using principles of operant conditioning

learned helplessness

a situation in which repeated exposure to inescapable punishment eventually produces a failure to make escape attempts - often situations in which they have no control (ex. abusive relationships)

how does operant conditioning work?

• reinforcement is more effective than punishment

• reinforcements tell us what to do in the future

• punishments tell us what not to do right now

reinforcement schedules

continuous: behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs

intermittent/partial: behavior is only followed by reinforcement some of the time - can be fixed (static) or variable (dynamic) by interval (time) or ratio (frequency)

implicit learning

refers to acquisition of information without awareness

insight learning

a suddent realization of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts

latent learning

occurs without reinforcement and is not used until called for; not a result of conditioning (ex. retaining info about layout of the space)

spatial navigation learning

a form of shaping - learning that involves forming associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space

observational/social learning

learning that occurs without overt training in response to watching the behaviour of tohers, called models

modelling

what occurs when an observer learns from the behaviour of another

mirror neurons

neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action

bandura’s three models

1. live is in person demonstration

2. verbal is instructions

3. symbolic demonstration not in person

observational learning

cognition’s role in observational learning - attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

vicarious reinforcement vs. vicarious punishment

modelled behaviour resulted in a positive or negative outcome