7) Eyewitness Testimony- Misleading Information

Explain what is meant by misleading information, and give two examples?

Incorrect information given to the witness, usually after the event.

• Such as leading questions or post event discussions.

Explain what is meant by the term leading questions, and use an example?

Leading questions are questions that are phrased in such a way that they imply or lead us to a specific answer.

• This was investigated by Loftus and Palmer.

Briefly outline research by Loftus and Palmer into leading questions as a factor affecting the accuracy of eye witness testimony?

Aim:

To investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Method:

The sample was 45 American students who were divided into five groups of nine.

• It was an independent groups design.

All of the participants watched a video of a car crash, and were then asked specific questions about the speed of the cars.

• Loftus and Palmer manipulated the verb used in the question.

  • E.G: “How fast were the cars going when they smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted with each other?”

Result:

They found that the estimated speed was affected by the verb used.

• E.G: Participants who were given the verb “smashed” reported an average speed of 40.5 mph.

• While participants given the verb “contacted” reported an average speed of 31.8 mph.

  • Overall difference of 8.7 mph.

Conclusion:

The results show clearly that the accuracy of eye witness testimony is affected by leading questions.

Also, that a single word in a question can significantly affect the accuracy of our judgement.

List two explanations for why leading questions are thought to affect the accuracy of eye witness testimony?

• Response bias

• Substitution bias

Outline response bias as an explanation for why leading questions are thought to affect the accuracy of eye witness testimony?

RESPONSE BIAS:

The question affects our answer but leaves the memory intact.

Outline substitution bias as an explanation for why leading questions are thought to affect the accuracy of eye witness testimony?

SUBSTITUTION BIAS:

The question alters our memory.

Outline what is meany by post event discussion?

When there is more than one witness to an event, and these witnesses discuss what they have seen with each other or with other people.

Name a researcher who investigated post-event discussion as a factor affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

Gabbert et al

Outline Gabbert et al’s research into post-event discussion as a factor affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

GABBERT ET AL:

Gave pairs of participants, a video of a crime to watch.

• Both partners saw the crime from different angles (so they saw aspects the other did not).

Afterwards, participants were allowed to discuss the clip.

• Researchers found that 71% of participants recalled events they had not seen, and instead they picked them up in the discussion.

In the control group, where there was no discussion, the figure was 0%.

Name two reasons given for the effect of post-event discussion on EWT?

• Memory contamination

• Memory conformity

Describe memory contamination as a reason for the effect of post-event discussion on EWT?

MEMORY CONTAMINATION:

Memories become altered or distorted because they combine information from other witnesses with their own memories.

Describe memory conformity as a reason for the effect of post-event discussion on EWT?

MEMORY CONFORMITY:

Witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they think the others are right.

Evaluate a strength into misleading information?

STRENGTH: REAL LIFE APPLICATION

Eyewitness identification is one of the most used tools for investigating and prosecuting crimes.

WELLS AND OLSEN (2003)

• Found that mistaken eyewitness identifications are the largest factor contributing to the convictions of innocent people.

Therefore, psychologists informing police interview techniques, and informing juries on the pitfalls of false testimony has prevented innocent people being convicted across the world.

Evaluate limitations into misleading information?

COUNTERPOINT: PROBLEMS WITH THE RESEARCH

Many psychologists have criticised research conducted into misleading information for lacking in external validity.

• As there is no stress and no consequences, it could be considered unrealistic.

  • Loftus and Palmer participants watched findings in a lab.

FOSTER ET AL:

They point out that what participants remember has important consequences in the real world.

• However, participants responses in research do not matter in the same way.

Ultimately, it is harder to generalise data to the real world.

LIMITATION: EVIDENCE CHALLENGING MEMORY CONFORMITY

SKAGERBERG AND WRIGHT:

They showed participants two versions of film clips.

• In one, the managers hair was dark brown, but in the other, it was light brown.

• Participants discussed the clips in pairs, having seen different versions.

Results showed that they did not report what they had seen in clips, or what they had heard from co-witnesses, but a blend of the two.

• e.g: an example was that a common answer was medium brown hair.

This suggests that memory itself is distorted through contamination by post-event discussion, rather than a result of memory conformity.