AP PSYCH UNIT 3

Nature

The influence of genetics and biological factors on behavior and development.

Nurture

The influence of environmental factors such as upbringing, culture, and experience on behavior and development.

Teratogens

Harmful agents that can cause defects in a developing embryo or fetus.

Reflexes

Automatic, inborn responses to specific stimuli.

Rooting Reflex

When a baby's cheek is touched, they turn their head and open their mouth to search for a nipple.

Sucking Reflex

An automatic response in infants to suck on objects placed in their mouths.

Grasping Reflex

When an object is placed in an infant's palm, they will grasp it tightly.

Moro Reflex

A startle response in infants, where they flail their limbs and then retract them.

Babinski Reflex

When the sole of a baby's foot is stroked, their toes fan outward.

Visual Cliff

A test for depth perception in infants, showing they can perceive depth once they start crawling.

Motor Skills

Abilities required to control large and small muscle movements.

Gross Motor Skills

Involve large muscle movements such as walking or jumping.

Gender Schema

Cognitive framework that organizes information related to gender roles and expectations.

Discontinuous

A perspective in developmental psychology that sees development as occurring in distinct stages.

Growth Spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight during puberty.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the range of tasks a child can perform with guidance but not alone.

Psychosocial Stage Theory

Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight stages of social and emotional development.

Trust vs. Mistrust

First stage of psychosocial development; if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of trust.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Second stage; toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Third stage; children learn to initiate tasks or feel guilty about efforts to be independent.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Fourth stage; children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks or feel inferior.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Fifth stage; teens work at refining a sense of self or become confused.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Sixth stage; individuals form close relationships or feel isolated.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Seventh stage; focus on contributing to the world or feeling purposeless.

Integrity vs. Despair

Eighth stage; reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret.

Imaginary Audience

Adolescents' belief that others are constantly watching and judging them.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting schemas to incorporate new information.

Schemata

Mental structures used to organize knowledge.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen.

Mental Symbols

The use of images or words to represent objects or events.

Egocentric

The inability of the preoperational child to see another's point of view.

Pretend Play

Using imagination to create scenarios; develops in the preoperational stage.

Theory of Mind

Understanding that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own.

Concepts of Conservation

The idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's stage where people develop abstract and hypothetical reasoning.

Abstract Reasoning

The ability to think about concepts and ideas not physically present.

Hypothetical Thinking

The ability to imagine and reason about situations that are not real.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's stage where children gain a better understanding of mental operations.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thinking processes.

Personal Fable

Adolescents' belief that they are unique and invulnerable.

Phonemes

The smallest distinctive sound units in a language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Syntax

The rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences.

Semantics

The meaning derived from words and sentences.

Babbling

Early stage of language development, involving spontaneous utterance of sounds.

Holophrastic Stage

One-word stage; toddlers use one word to represent a complete idea.

Telegraphic Speech

Two-word phrases often used by toddlers that are like telegrams.

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules too widely.

Critical Period

A window of time in which language acquisition is easiest.

Attachment Parenting

Parenting approach focusing on close physical and emotional bonds.

Temperament

An individual's innate personality characteristics and emotional reactivity.

Secure Attachments

Children who show distress when parent leaves but are comforted upon return.

Avoidant Attachments

Children who avoid or ignore the caregiver and show little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns.

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachments

Children who are anxious about caregiver availability, showing clinginess and difficulty being comforted.

Insecure Attachments

Includes avoidant and ambivalent; children have inconsistent or minimal emotional connection with caregivers.

Separation Anxiety

Distress when separated from a primary caregiver.

Microsystem

The immediate environment that directly influences a child.

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems.

Exosystem

Indirect environmental settings that affect the child.

Macrosystem

Cultural and societal influences on development.

Chronosystem

The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course.

Authoritarian Parents

Strict, impose rules and expect obedience.

Permissive Parents

Submit to their children’s desires, make few demands, and use little punishment.

Authoritative Parents

Demanding and responsive; set rules but explain and encourage open discussion.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together; includes classical and operant conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US or UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UR or UCR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning, during which a response is established.

Trace Conditioning

The CS is presented, then removed, and then the US is presented.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the US no longer follows the CS.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli similar to the CS.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.

Higher-order Conditioning

A new neutral stimulus becomes a new CS by association with an already established CS.

Taste Aversions

A learned avoidance of a particular food after it causes illness.

One-trial Learning

Learning that occurs after only one pairing of a CS and US.

Biological Preparedness

The idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.

Association

A mental connection between concepts, events, or mental states.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens a behavior it follows.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

Reinforcement Discrimination

Learning to respond only to the original stimulus.

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.

Primary Reinforcers

Innately reinforcing stimuli like food or water.

Secondary Reinforcers

Stimuli that gain reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Generalized Reinforcer

A secondary reinforcer associated with multiple primary reinforcers.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial-Reinforcement Effect

Responses learned under partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

Fixed-Ratio (FR)

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio (VR)

Reinforcement after a random number of responses.