Behavioral Science: Research Methods, Ethics, and Validity

What are the limitations of using intuition and anecdote as ways of knowing?

They are flawed methods that can lead to incorrect generalizations.

What is illusory correlation?

It occurs when we focus on two events that stand out and occur together, leading to false conclusions.

How does authority influence our understanding of behavior?

We are more likely to be persuaded by speakers who appear prestigious, trustworthy, and respectable.

What is empiricism?

It requires knowledge to be based on observations and data analysis.

What does scientific skepticism entail?

It means evaluating ideas based on careful logic and results from well-executed scientific investigations.

What is pseudoscience?

The use of seemingly scientific terms and demonstrations to support nonscientific claims.

What is the goal of behavioral science?

To describe, predict, determine causes, and understand or explain behavior.

What are the three types of evidence used to identify causes of behavior?

Temporal precedence, covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanations.

What is the difference between basic and applied research?

Basic research answers fundamental questions about behavior, while applied research addresses practical problems and solutions.

What is a hypothesis?

A tentative answer to a research question that must be testable and include specific variables.

What is the null hypothesis?

A statement that there is no effect or relationship, such as 'self-esteem of adolescent girls is not affected by social media use.'

What are the five sources of ideas for research?

Common sense, practical problems, observation, past research, and theory.

What is a literature review?

An article that summarizes previous research on a particular topic.

What does a meta-analysis do?

It uses statistical procedures to analyze results from several studies and draw conclusions.

What are the five sections of a typical empirical research article?

Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion.

What was the main finding of Milgram's obedience experiment?

Approximately 65% of participants continued to deliver shocks at the highest level.

What is the Nuremberg Code?

A set of ten rules for medical research conduct developed in response to Nazi research atrocities.

What role did the American Psychological Association (APA) play in ethical standards?

The APA began drafting its ethical code in 1947, influenced by the Nuremberg Code.

What did Edgar Vinacke criticize psychologists for?

Lack of concern over ethical issues.

List the five general ethical principles in research.

Beneficence and non-maleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, respect for people's rights and dignity.

What is the Declaration of Helsinki?

A document that expanded the Nuremberg Code, developed by the World Medical Association, requiring journal editors to ensure published research conforms to its standards.

What triggered the creation of the Belmont Report?

A 1972 whistleblower incident that led to a Congressional hearing.

What are the three basic ethical principles defined in the Belmont Report?

Principle of beneficence, principle of respect for persons (autonomy), principle of justice.

What are the direct benefits of research participation?

Treatment for a psychological problem, monetary payment, and satisfaction from contributing to scientific knowledge.

Define confidentiality in research.

The issue when data collected from subjects is identifiable.

What is the difference between privacy and confidentiality?

Privacy refers to participants' control over their information, while confidentiality involves how identifiable data is handled.

What is informed consent in research?

The process of providing potential participants with information that might influence their decision to participate.

Which populations require special precautions in research?

Minors, patients in psychiatric hospitals, and adults with cognitive impairments.

When is withholding information from participants acceptable?

When the research is minimal risk, the information won't affect the decision to participate, and it will be provided later.

What is deception in research?

Actively misrepresenting information about the nature of a study, which can be either active (providing misinformation) or passive (withholding information).

What is debriefing in research?

An explanation of the purpose of the research provided to participants after the study is completed.

What is the role of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)?

To review research conducted at their institution and ensure ethical standards are met.

How is research with human subjects classified?

As either minimal risk or greater than minimal risk.

Define minimal risk in research.

The risk of harm to participants is no greater than in daily life or routine tests.

What constitutes fraud in research?

The fabrication of data, which is considered very serious but rare.

What is plagiarism in research?

Misrepresenting another's work as your own.

What are the goals of research?

To describe behavior, predict behavior, determine causes of behavior, and explain behavior.

What is validity in research?

The extent to which a conclusion is reasonably accurate or true.

What are the four types of validity?

Internal validity, construct validity, external validity, and statistical validity.

What is internal validity?

The accuracy of conclusions drawn about cause and effect.

What is an independent variable?

The variable manipulated by the researcher, considered the cause.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable measured by the researcher, expected to change as a result of changes in the independent variable.

What is an operational definition?

A set of procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable.

What are the four common relationships between variables?

Positive linear, negative linear, curvilinear, and no relationship.

What distinguishes non-experimental methods from experimental methods?

Non-experimental methods observe variables, while experimental methods involve manipulation of the independent variable.

What is the purpose of experimental control?

To ensure that any differences between groups are due to the manipulated variable.

What is the significance of randomization in experiments?

To control for variables that cannot be held constant by ensuring their effects are random.

What is the artificiality of experiments?

Lab experiments often have strong internal validity but may lack external validity due to their controlled settings.