Political science Unit 1

What is Government

The means by which a society organizes itself and allocates authority to achieve collective goals

What are Government core goals

Economic prosperity, securing national borders, education, healthcare, and infrastructure (structures)

What was Government influences

• John Locke (Two Treatises of Government, 1689) Introduced natural rights [life, liberty, property]

• Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations, 1776) Formulated foundational principles of capitalism and economic cycles

What are Government politics

The process of gaining and exercising control within a government Key Values include individualism, egalitarianism, and civic engagment

Representative Democracy

Citizens elect leaders; operates on majority rule balanced by majority rule balanced by minority rights

Direct Democracy

Citizens participate directly in decision making

Oligarchy

Power held by a small group of elites (political elites structures)

Monarchy

Power concentrated in a single ruler or family, usually hereditary

Theocracy

Government led by religious leaders/principles

Totalitarianism

complete state control over all aspects of public and private life

Elitism Theory

A set of elite citizens holds actual control over the government, leaving ordinary citizens with little influence

Pluralist Theory

Political power rests with competing interest groups sharing influence

(ex: interest groups- unions, industries, environmental groups, ideological groups)

The tradeoffs persepective

Government policy froms through onoing compromises (tradeoffs)

Historical Tradeoffs

The Great Compromise (large vs. small states), Bill of Rights (federal vs. state power)

Issue Conflict

Environmental policy vs. energy development (e.g. Hydraulic Fracturing [drill method to extract oils and natural gas])

Congressional Tradeoffs

Members balance local constituent concerns against party leadership demands

Civic Engagement in a Democracy importance

Civic engagement empowers ordinary citizens and ensures representative democracy functions effectively

Civic Engagement in a Democracy social capital

The collective value of social networks and the inclination to help others; currently experiencing a decline along with group participation

Pathways to Civic engagement

1. Staying informed on local/national affairs

2. Contacting elected officials via email or letter

3. Voting: primary individual action 60% participation in presidential elections vs. 40% in midterms

4. Attending rallies, campaign donating, or signing petitions

5. Participation in community surveys, polls, or local volunteering

Early American self government

John Locke’s Legacy: Established that natural rights cannot be taken away and property rights go to those who cultivate common lands. Influenced the English Bill of Rights (1689)

Early Domocratic Foundations

1. 1619 House of Burgesses: First representative assembly in North America

2. 1620 Mayflower Compact: Early form of self-government established by the Pilgrims

Colonial Unrest & Stirrings of Revolt Cause of tension

Unfair British taxation without representation, trade restricting, and quartering policies

Colonial Unrest & Stirrings of Revolt Key Acts and Events

1. Proclamation Line

2. Sugar Act & Currency Act

3. Stamp Act & Townshend Acts

4. Boston Massacre

5. Destruction of the Tea (Boston Tea Party)

6. Coercive Act (Introlerable Acts) & Quartering Acts

7. Formation of the Sons of Liberty

The move to independence & War defining war aims

Shifted from reconciliation efforts (Olive Branch Petition) to ideological separation driven by Thomas Paine’s Common Sense

The move to independence & War declaration of independence

Framed around social contract theory and listed specific grievances against King George III

The move to independence & War mobilizations challenges

financing the war, establishing initial governance through the Articles of Confederation, and obtaining foreign aid

The search for a national government the confederation (1781)

First national government created under the Articles of Confederation

The search for a national government Western land policy

1. Land ordinance (1787 & 1785)

2. Northwest Ordinance (1787): Established grid systems and pathways to statehood in northern territories

Post war crisis & Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787) 1

Severe post-war economic depression, debt, and tax burdens hit farmers

The search for a national government 2

Daniel Shays led an armed uprising targeting courthouses to stop foreclosure and due process actions

The search for a national government significance

Highlighted the weaknesses of the central government under the Articles of Confederation, leading to calls for the Constitutional Convention

Post revolutionary Boundaries | prewar boundaries 1775

Large portions of North America were split mainly between British and Spanish control, with Russian presence in the far northwest

Post revolutionary Boundaries | postwar boundaries 1783

1. The United States emerged as an independent nation spanning form the Atlantic to the Mississippi River

2. Dispute territories remained between Spain, the U.S, Great Britain, and Russia (especially in the South, North, and Pacific Northwest)

Advocate for centralization

Key figures like Alexander Hamilton and George Washington argued for a stronger national government to maintain order and stability

Debates & Divisions at the Constitutional convention 1

Virginia Plan vs. New Jersey Plan: Large states wanted representation based on population (Virginia plan); small states wanted equal representation per state (New Jersey Plan)

Debates & Divisions at the Constitutional convention 2

Key Debates: Slavery and freedom, federal supremacy vs. state sovereignty, and individual liberty vs. social stability

Debates & Divisions at the Constitutional convention | Major compromises

1. The great compromise: created a bicameral legislature the Senate (equal representation per state) and the House of Repersentatives (representation by population)

2. 3/5 Compromise: Counted 3/5 of the enslaved population for both representation and taxation purpose

The Preamble

The preamble serves as the thesis statement for the U.S Constitution, outlining six main goals:

1. From a more perfect union

2. Establish justice

3. Insure domestic tranquility

4. Provide for the common defence

5. promote the general welfare

6. secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity

Structure of Government | Executive Branch (president & cabinet)

1. Serves as commander in Chief of the armed forces

2. Conducts foreign affairs and appoints federal judges, ambassadors, and departments heads

3. Grants pardon and holds veto power over legislation

Legislative Branch (Congress- Senate & House)

1. Passes legislation, declares war, control appropriations, and regulate commerce

2. Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments

3. Can impeach federal officials and override presidential vetoes

Judicial Branch (Supreme Court & Federal Courts)

1. Hears cases involving federal law; Acts as the final court of appeal

2. Exercises judicial review (declares laws or executive actions unconstitutional)

3. Chief Justice presides over presidential impeachment trails

System of Checks and Balances

Designed to limit any single branch from becoming to powerful

Executive checks

can veto legislation; appoints judges

Legislative checks

can override vetoes; approves appointments/treaties; holds impeachment power; controls funding

Judical checks

can declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional

Article VI (supremacy clause)

Federal law takes precedence over state laws when conflicts arise

Enumerated Power (Federal)

Explicitly written powers including declaring war, imposing taxes, regulating currency, operating post offices, maintaining armed forces, and regulating interstate/foreign commerce

Reserved powers (states)

powers kept by the states under the 10th Amendment, including elections, education systems, marriage licenses, and intrastate commerce

Article VII

required 9 of the 13 states to ratify the document through special state conventions

The debates

• Federalists: supported a strong national government and ratification

• Anti-Federalist: opposed central power, fearing loss of state soverignty and individual rights; demanded a Bill of Rights

Ratification Timeline

1. First State: Delaware (Dec 7, 1787)

2. 9th State (Making it official) New Hampshire (June 21, 1788)

3. Final state Rhode Island (May 29, 1790)

Article V (Amendment Process)

• Proposal: 2/3 vote in both houses of Congress OR 2/3 of state legislatures petitioning for a convention

• Ratification: Requires approval by ¾ of state legilatures or state convections

The Bill of Rights 1st amendment

Freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition

The Bill of Rights 2nd amendment

Right to keep and bear arms in a well regulated milita

The Bill of Rights 3rd amendment

Restricts quartering of soldiers in private homes

The Bill of Rights 4th amendment

protects against unreasonable searches and seizures

The Bill of Rights 5th amendment

Due process, protection against self incrimination, double jeopardy, and eminent domain

The Bill of Rights 6th amendment

Right to a speedy and public trial, impartial jury, lawyer, and confronting witnesses

The Bill of Rights 7th amendment

Right to a jury trial in civil cases over 20$

The Bill of Rights 8th amendment

Prohibits excessive bail/fines and cruel and unusual punishments

The Bill of Rights 9th amendment

Non-enumerated rights belong to the people

The Bill of Rights 10th amendment

Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people

Core concepts of federalism definition

Federalism safeguards subnational (state) interests and creates a strong union led by a capable central (national) government

Core concepts of federalism key features

• Establishes two levels of government, both elected by the people, each assigned different functions

• Written national constitution that cannot by changed without substantial consent of subnational government

• National court resolve disputes between levels and departments of government

• Subnational government are represented in the upper house of the national legislature to influence national lawmaking

Enumerated power

• Federal/ State/ Shared: Federal Government

• Key Details + Ex: Coin money, regulate interstate and foreign commerce, conduct foreign affairs, establish rules of naturalization, declare war, raise and support armies

Concurrent Powers

• Federal/ State/ Shared: shared

• Key Details + Ex: Levy and collect taxes borrow money, make and enforce laws, establish courts, charter banks and corporations, take property for public purpose with compensation

Reserved Powers

• Federal/ State/ Shared: Sate Government

• Key Details + Ex: Powers not delegated to national government nor prohibited to states (10th amendment). Includes regulating intrastate commerce, conducting elections, providing public health/ safety, and maintaining a militia

Powers Denied to Federal

• Federal/ State/ Shared: Federal Restricted

• Key Details + Ex: Tax state exports, change state boundaries, violate the Bill of Rights

Power Denied to State

• Federal/ State/ Shared: State Restricted

• Key Details + Ex: Tax imports/exports, coin money, enter treaties, impair obligation of contracts, pass bills of attainder or ex post facto laws, abridge privileges or deny due process

Necessary and proper clause (Elastic clause)

Article 1, section 8, clause 18 grants Congress broad authority to make laws necessary to carry out enumerated powers. Includes powers like regulating interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause

Supremacy Clause

Article VI, Clause 2 state that the U.S Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the “supreme Law of the Land“

1. Ladder of Laws: 1 U.S

2. Constitution → Federal Laws & Treaties

3. State Constitutions

4. State Laws

5. Local Laws

10th Amendment

Enshrines state reserved powers and explicitly limits federal overreach

Constitutional Restrictions on states

Amendments 14,15,19 and 26 prevent states from violating citizenship and voting rights based on race, sex, or age

Intergovernmental Grants

Federal government uses grants to compel state actions

• Land Grants

• Cash Grants

• Categorical Grants: specific, targeted funding (most common)

• Block Grants: Broad funding categories giving states flexibility

Unfunded Mandates

Directives forcing state actions without federal funding (education, environmental protection, civil rights, homeland security)

Formal power

Veto legislation (line item, amendatory, or reduction veto), prepare the budget, call special legislative session, grant pardons

Responsibilities

State/party spokeperson, crisis manager, public policy overseer, and lawmaking guide

State Legislatures primary functions

1. Lawmaking (researching, writing, and passing legislation)

2. District representation (assisting citizen requests)

3. Executive branch oversight

Variation

Differs across states by size, diversity, party composition (divided vs. unified government), and professionalism

Term Limits Debates

Restricts the length of service in state legislatures via lifetime caps or consecutive term limits

Term Limits Debates Benefits

• Increases motivation to make good public policy

• Increases diversity

• Higher turnover can boost electoral competition and voter interest

Term Limits Debates cons

• No statistically significant increase in diversity

• Loss of institutional power relative to governors and agencies

• Negatively impacts voter enthusiasm and turnout