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Memory

The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

Redintegration

Using one memory cue to reconstruct an entire memory

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific personal events or experiences

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts, concepts, and general knowledge

Implicit Memory

Memories that influence behavior without conscious awareness

Explicit Memory

Memories that are consciously recalled

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory

Tip of the Tongue

The feeling of knowing something but being unable to retrieve it at that moment

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

A graph showing that memory loss occurs rapidly at first, then levels off

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information; capacity is large, duration is milliseconds to a few seconds

Short-Term Memory

Holds information temporarily for immediate use; capacity 7 ± 2 items; duration 20–30 seconds without rehearsal

Long-Term Memory

Stores information for long periods; capacity is virtually unlimited; duration minutes to lifetime

Storage Failure

The inability to retain information over time

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory

Echoic Memory

Brief auditory sensory memory

Iconic Memory

Brief visual sensory memory

Memory and Hippocampus

Hippocampus is critical for forming and consolidating new long-term memories

Consolidation

The process of stabilizing a memory in long-term storage

State-Dependent Learning

Memory retrieval is better when in the same state as when the memory was encoded

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after brain injury

Retroactive Interference

New information makes it harder to remember old information

Proactive Interference

Old information makes it harder to remember new information

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Memory flows through three stages: sensory → short-term → long-term

Suppression

Conscious effort to push unwanted thoughts or memories out of awareness

Mnemonic Device

Memory aid that helps encode or retrieve information

Spaced Practice

Studying material over multiple sessions spread out in time

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information to existing knowledge to aid memory

Working Memory

Active system that processes and manipulates information in short-term memory

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory

Network Model

Memory is organized in interconnected nodes and associations

Retrieval Cue

Stimulus that aids the recall of a memory

Cognitive Interview

Technique to improve memory recall by using context and multiple retrieval cues

Recall

Retrieving information without cues

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information from options

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than the middle

Acrostic

A mnemonic in which the first letters of words form a sentence or phrase

Experiential Processing

Processing information based on personal experience and intuition

Reflective Processing

Careful, logical, and deliberate thinking about information

Concepts

Mental categories used to group objects, events, or ideas with shared features

Mental Images

Mental representations of objects or events that are not physically present

Visuospatial Sketch Pad

Part of working memory that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information

Kinesthetic Image

Mental representation of body movement or physical activity

Concept Formation

Process of learning to group objects, events, or ideas into categories

Prototype

The most typical example of a concept

Algorithm

A step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a solution

Language

A structured system of communication using symbols, sounds, or gestures

Connotative Meaning

The emotional or cultural meaning of a word

Denotative Meaning

The literal, dictionary definition of a word

Semantics

The study of meaning in language

Similarities Between Spoken and Sign Language

Both have syntax, grammar, and convey abstract ideas

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language

Grammar

Rules for combining words to form sentences

Syntax

Rules for word order in a language

Inductive Thought

Reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions

Deductive Thought

Reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions

Problem Solving and Understanding

Using cognitive processes to overcome obstacles and reach goals

Insight and Selective Encoding

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution and focusing on relevant information

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Functional Fixedness

A type of fixation where you cannot see alternative uses for an object

Automatic Processing

Encoding information with little or no conscious effort

Creativity

Ability to produce new, original, and valuable ideas or solutions

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible solutions to a problem

Convergent Thinking

Focusing on finding the single best solution

Stages of Creative Thought

Steps including preparation, incubation, insight, and verification

Framing

The way a problem or decision is presented affects how it is perceived

Choice Overload

Difficulty making a decision when faced with many options

Representative Heuristic

Judging probability based on how similar something is to a prototype

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Creative Personality

Traits like curiosity, risk-taking, and openness to experience that enhance creativity

Linguistic Relativity

The idea that language influences thought

Temperament

Biologically based, early-appearing patterns of behavior

Personality

Consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Trait

A stable characteristic that influences behavior

Halo Effect

The tendency to let one positive trait influence overall judgment

Self-Concept

The collection of beliefs about oneself

Personality Questionnaire

A structured self-report measure of personality traits

Collectivist Culture

Emphasizes group goals and social harmony

Individualistic Culture

Emphasizes personal goals and independence

MMPI-2

Standardized personality inventory used to assess psychological disorders

Projective Test

Unstructured test using ambiguous stimuli to reveal personality

Projective Test Limitations

Subjective scoring and low reliability

Behavioral Assessment

Observing and measuring overt behavior in specific situations

Trait Theories

Focus on identifying and measuring stable personality characteristics

Central Traits

Core traits that define a person’s personality

Secondary Traits

Less consistent or superficial traits

Factor Analysis

Statistical method to identify clusters of related traits

Big Five

Five broad traits of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis, emphasizing unconscious motives

Id

Unconscious, pleasure-seeking part of personality

Ego

Rational part that mediates between id and reality

Superego

Moral and social standards

Behavioral Theory

Personality develops through learning and reinforcement

Social Learning Theory

Personality develops through observation, imitation, and modeling

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety

Unconscious

Thoughts and desires outside of awareness

Preconscious

Memories not currently in awareness but can be recalled

Conscious

Thoughts currently in awareness

Self-Actualization

Achieving one’s full potential