Bio 117 Exam #2

Core Principles About: Prokaryotes, Protists, Fungi, Seed Plants, Homeostasis, Invertebrates, Vertebrates

features of prokaryotes

no true nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, unicellular, genetic material is usually circular, some unique structural features (e.g. cell wall).

archaebacteria and eubacteria

The domain of prokaryotes includes __________ and __________

Prokaryotic cell membrane (differences)

isoprene (phytanyl) chains, ether bonds v. ester bonds, archaea can sometimes form monolayers

monolayers

are lipid bilayers where the lipids are arranged in a single layer instead of two, providing unique stability to some archaeal membranes.

peptidoglycan

bacterial cell walls use ___________; archaean cell walls do not

cyanobacteria

photosynthetic bacteria that produce a significant amount of oxygen

proteobacteria (pseudomonadota)

largest and most metabolically diverse bacterial phylum, some members are pathogenic

extremophiles

many prokaryotes are ___________

Euryarchaeota (methanobacteriati)

includes thermophiles, methanogens, and halobacteria (haloarchaea)

thermophiles

thrive in 45-80 degrees celsius, 113-176 degree F

Hyperthermophiles

thrive over 80 degrees celsius, 176 degrees F

archaea

pretty much all extremophiles are _________

thermophiles

some bacteria are ____________

crenarchaeota (thermoproteota)

include thermophiles, hyperthermophiles, and sulfur-dependent extremophiles

halobacteria

salt-loving microorganisms are ___________

methanogens

a group of Archaea that produce methane as a metabolic byproduct in anoxic conditions.

prokaryotic metabolism chart

prokaryotic metabolism chart

metabolism

sum of all life sustaining reactions in a cell

energy source (prokaryotes)

light or chemical compounds

electron source (prokaryotes)

organic or inorganic compounds

carbon source (prokaryotes)

produce own or consume

Nitrogen

________ is a major component of proteins and nucleic acids

nitrogen fixing

transformation of gaseous nitrogen into a more usable form

nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is made accessible and usable by plants, which can then be accessed by animals. The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms in the environment, involving processes like nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, and ammonification. This cycle is essential for maintaining ecosystem health and supporting life.

ammonification

The process by which organic nitrogen is converted into ammonia by decomposers, making it available for uptake by plants.

nitrification

the process of converting ammonia into nitrites and then nitrates through microbial activity.

nitrifying bacteria

Bacteria that convert ammonia into nitrites and then nitrates during nitrification, playing a crucial role in the nitrogen cycle.

denitrifying bacteria

Bacteria that convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas, returning it to the atmosphere and completing the nitrogen cycle.

assimilation

the process by which plants and microorganisms take up nitrates and nitrites and incorporate them into amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

decomposers

Organisms that break down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients back into the soil and contributing to the nutrient cycle.

prokaryotes v. eukaryotes

Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms without a defined nucleus, while eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells that contain a nucleus and organelles. This distinction differentiates bacteria and archaea from plants, animals, and fungi.

bacteria v. archaea

Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms characterized by their peptidoglycan cell wall, while archaea are also prokaryotic but have distinct biochemistry and often inhabit extreme environments, lacking peptidoglycan in their cell walls.

electron source

what source is used to make ATP

supergroups

proposed new way of organizing eukaryotes as alternative to kingdoms. is organized based on common ancestors. each are believed to be monophyletic, or evolved from a common ancestor. kingdom Protista has been largely abandoned in favor of this new system.

eukaryotes

prokaryotes are examples of __________

characteristics of protists

eukaryotic cells, nucleus surrounds genetic material, membrane bound organelles, mitosis and/or meiosis, more complex cytoskeletons, chromosomes commonly organized by histones, some structures common with prokaryotes (like a cell wall or flagella)

histones

are proteins that help package and organize DNA into chromosomes in eukaryotic cells.

endosymbiosis

relationship where one organism lives inside the other and both benefit

mitochondria

looks resemble proteobacteria in membrane structure, DNA structure and replication, and in how the mitochondria replicates

proteobacteria

are a diverse group of bacteria that are characterized by their distinctive membrane structures and play significant roles in ecology and human health.

plastid

broad family of organelles, chloroplast is an example of a plastid

characteristics of protists

unicellular or multicellular, microscopic or macroscopic, some live in colonies and behave live individuals or as a multicellular organism, can be photoautotrophs, heterotrophs, and even phagocytose

photoautotrophes

organisms that use light energy to synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water.

phagocytose

the process of engulfing solid particles or other cells by a cell to form a food vacuole.

motile

most protists are _______

flagella

small whip like appendage which gives an organism or cell motility

cilia

short hair-like structures that help with movement or feeding in protists.

pseudopodia

temporary projections of the cell membrane that assist in movement and feeding in various protists.

taxis

a directional movement of an organism in response to a stimulus, such as light or chemicals.

traits of eukaryotes

Eukaryotes are characterized by membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus, and complex cellular structures. They can be unicellular or multicellular and exhibit greater genetic diversity.

characteristics of fungi

can be unicellular or multicellular, store carbohydrates as glycogen, are decomposers/ nutrient recyclers, can exchange plants via mycorrhizae, are eukaryotic, heterotrophs, cell walls with chitin, can reproduce asexually and/or sexually.

digestion

fungi get nutrients through a process that does _______ before ingestion.

saprobes/saprophytes

decomposer organisms that obtain nutrients via extracellular digestion

hyphae

tiny, tubular filaments that form complex networks (mycelium)

mycelium

the dense mass of hyphae that collectively make up the vegetative part of a fungus.

exoenzymes

fungi excrete _________ from hyphae to break down organic material into absorbable nutrients

exoenzymes

enzymes that digest substances externally

bioremediation

the process of using living organisms, often microbes or plants, to remove or neutralize contaminants from the environment.

asexually or sexually

fungi can reproduce ______ __ ______

budding

a type of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows out from the parent organism, looks like a small bud.

fragmentation

A type of asexual reproduction where an organism splits into fragments, each capable of growing into a new individual.

spores

reproductive structures in fungi that can develop into new individuals under favorable conditions, enabling both sexual and asexual reproduction.

plasmogamy

the process in fungal reproduction where the cytoplasm of two parent cells fuses together, resulting in a cell with two nuclei.

karyogamy

the final step in fungal reproduction where the nuclei of two parent cells fuse to form a diploid nucleus.

meiosis

the process of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four haploid cells (the fungal spores), crucial for sexual reproduction in fungi.

chytridiomycota

phylum of fungi that mostly live in aquatic environments, the only fungi that can have flagella, some cause skin diseases in amphibians

zygomycota

a phylum of fungi that includes bread molds and other fungi, the conjugating fungi, so they link up with other cells and exchange genetic material

ascomycota

a phylum of fungi known as sac fungi, characterized by the production of ascospores in sac-like structures called asci, encompassing a wide variety of species including truffles.

ascomycota

most fungi belong to the phylum __________

glomeromycota

a group of fungi that form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, assisting in nutrient exchange and enhancing plant growth.

arbuscular mycorrhizae

specialized structures formed by glomeromycota fungi that penetrate plant root cells, facilitating nutrient transfer.

basidiomycota

a phylum of fungi that forms club shaped fruiting bodies, also seen in fairy rings, puffballs,

pileus

the cap of a mushroom, often umbrella-shaped, that covers the spore-producing structures.

veil

a membranous covering that surrounds young mushrooms, protecting the developing reproductive structures.

gills

the thin, blade-like structures found underneath the pileus of a mushroom that produce and release spores.

stipe

the stalk or stem that supports the pileus of a mushroom.

annulus

a ring-like structure found on the stipe of some mushrooms, typically formed from the remnants of the veil.

organ system

a group of organs that work together to perform complex functions necessary for sustaining life.

shoot system

the part of a plant that includes stems and leaves, responsible for photosynthesis and reproduction. (vegetative and reproductive)

root system

the part of a plant that includes roots, responsible for anchoring the plant and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. (xylem, phloem)

xylem

the tissue in vascular plants responsible for the transport of water and dissolved nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant.

phloem

the vascular tissue in plants responsible for the transport of nutrients and sugars produced by photosynthesis throughout the plant.

angiosperms

seeds enclosed in ovary/fruit

gymnosperms

seeds are not inclosed in ovary or fruit

sporophyte

diploid, multicellular phase in life cycle of plants

pollen grain

a male gametophyte that carries sperm cells in seed plants.

pollen tube

a structure that grows from a pollen grain to deliver sperm cells to the ovule in seed plants.

megaspore

a haploid spore that develops into a female gametophyte in seed plants.

stamen

the male reproductive part of a flower, consisting of the anther and filament.

pistil

the female reproductive structure of a flower, consisting of the ovary, style, and stigma.

stigma

the part of the pistil that receives pollen during fertilization.

style

the narrow, elongated part of the pistil that connects the stigma to the ovary.

embryo sac

the female gametophyte in flowering plants, containing the egg cell and facilitating fertilization.

ovary

the enlarged basal portion of the pistil that contains ovules and develops into fruit after fertilization.

double fertilization

a unique process in flowering plants where one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, and another sperm fuses with two polar nuclei to form triploid tissue.