GEG 111 Exam 1

What is geography?

The study of Earth's features (land, water, air), inhabitants (living things) and their spatial (locational) relationships and interactions.

Textbook: the science that studies the relationships among natural
systems, geographic areas, and human society and culture, and the interdependence of all of these.

5 Traditional themes of geographic study

1) Location: Absolute or relative position on Earth.
2) Place: The human and physical characteristics of a location. No two places are
exactly alike on Earth.
3) Region: An area defined by uniform characteristics.
4) Movement: Interaction between places through migration, and/or diffusion.
5) Human-Earth Relationships: The two way relationship between society and the environment.

The 3 Primary asked questions in geographic inquiry

-WHERE? (Location)
- WHY THERE? describes or explains the processes that allow the object/subject of interest to occur at a location
- WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE? The impact the object/subject has on other phenomena connected to the location and vice versa.

Spatial Analysis

The examination of spatial interactions, patterns, and variations over area and/or space.

Key Concepts of Spatial Analysis

1) Spatial Interaction: The interaction and
interdependence between geographic
areas or sites
2) Spatial Distribution: The arrangement of features in space
3) Regions: A region is an area of the Earth defined by one or more distinctive characteristics

Primary Steps of the Scientific Method

1) Observation
2) Hypothesis & Prediction
3) Experimentation and Measurement
4) Peer review
5) Scientific Theory and development

Closed System

A system that is self-contained and isolated from influences outside the system. (energy can flow in and out)

Open System

A system that exchanges energy and matter with the surroundings (energy and matter). (Glaciers)

Positive Feedback

Changes in a system that are amplified by the system's output. Ex: rise in atmospheric temperatures by the continual release of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere.

Negative Feedback

A system's operations are reversed by the system's output.

4 primary environmental spheres

1. Atmosphere—―air/gasses (abiotic)
2. Lithosphere—―stone/land (abiotic)
3. Hydrosphere—―water (abiotic)
4. Biosphere—―life

Latitude

Angular displacement from the equator
- North-south direction
- 0º-90º
- Also known as Parallels

Longitude

Angle east and west of the Prime Meridian
• Centered on Greenwich, England
- East-west orientation
- 0º-180º
- Also known as Meridians

3 Geospatial technologies

GPS, GIS, and remote sensing

GPS

Relies on satellites in orbit to provide precise location and elevation.

GIS

Refers to software and databases used for storing and processing large amounts of spatial data as separate layers (themes) of geographic
information

Remote Sensing

Utilizes spacecraft, aircraft, and ground-based sensors to provide visual data that enhance our understanding.

Our Solar System's formation

- Located in the Milky Way Galaxy. (Flat disk containing 400 billion stars)
-According to the nebula hypothesis the solar system formed from a large, slowly rotating and collapsing cloud of dust and gas.
- Estimated to be 50 billion planets in the Milky Way (500 million in habitable zone).

Annual March of the Seasons

Changing of seasons due to earth rotating on its 23.5 degree axis.

Solstices and Equinoxes

-June Solstice (June 20 or 21): Northern hemisphere tilted toward the sun. Maximum daylength--Northern hemisphere summer and southern hemisphere winter. Declination 23.5
-December Solstice (December 21 or 22) : Northern hemisphere tilted away from the sun. (Minimum daylength)- Northern hemisphere winter and southern hemisphere summer. Dec: 23.5.
-March (Vernal) Equinox (March 20 or 21): Equal length of day and night at all latitudes-
Declination of the sun at the equator
-September (Autumnal) Equinox (September 22 or 23): Equal length of day and night at all latitudes- Declination of the sun at the equator

Subsolar Point

When the sun is directly overhead. The declination migrates between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S)

Insolation

Solar energy that is intercepted by Earth. Derived from incoming solar radiation. It is uneven across the globe because of variations in daylength, high Sun altitude, and atmospheric obstruction.

Atmospheric Composition: Gases

The gases of the atmosphere support life.
Heterosphere: Layer of the upper atmosphere where the gases of the atmosphere are not evenly mixed.
Homosphere: Extending from the surface
to about 80 km (50 mi). Most gases
maintain uniform proportions.

Atmospheric Composition: Structure

-Thermosphere: Highest temperature, absorbs suns energy, creates moderate temperature. temp increases w/ altitude.
-Mesophere: Coldest part of our atmosphere, temperature decreases with altitude, coldest at mesopause.
-Stratosphere: Location of Ozone layer. Temp increases with altitude.
-Troposphere: Lowest sphere, where most weather occurs, temp decreases w/ altitude.

Anthropogenic air pollution

Human caused air pollution

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Steady depletion of ozone layer.

The Montreal Protocol

International treaty to protect the O3 layer by phasing out substances that deplete stratospheric O3. Instituted in 1987.

Photochemical Smog

Major component of anthropogenic air pollution. Appeared after the advent of
automobiles. Responsible for hazy skies and reduced sunlight in many cities

Industrial Smog

Air pollution from coal burning industries is known as smog.

Natural Pollutants

Forest Fires, Volcanoes, decaying soils.

Scattering

Reflection and redirection of insolation by atmospheric gases, dust, ice, and water vapor. The shorter the wavelength the greater the scattering. Diffuse radiation: incoming energy that reaches Earth's surface after scattering

Refraction

The change in the direction and speed of electromagnetic energy when insolation enters the atmosphere or another medium.

Albedo

The relative amount (ratio) of light that a surface reflects compared to the total sunlight that falls on it.

Absorption

The assimilation of radiation by molecules of matter, converting the radiation from one form of energy to another. - The temperature of the absorbing surface rises. (absorbing sun's rays.)

Conduction

Molecule-to-molecule transfer of heat energy as it diffuses through a substance.

Convection

Transfer of heat by mixing or circulation (warmer and less dense masses tend to rise, and cooler denser masses tend to sink).

Advection

Similar to convection but horizontal movement dominates.

Greenhouse Effect

The absorption and emission of Earth's longwave radiation in the lower troposphere leading to higher temperatures by greenhouse gases (GHG).

Principal Controls of Temperature

Latitude, altitude and elevation, cloud cover, land-water heating differences, and ocean currents.
Latitude- influences Angle of Incidence (the angle which solar energy strikes earth.
Altitude and elevation- Temperatures fall as alt/el increase.
Cloud cover- reflect and absorb radiation.

Land-Water heating differences.

Maritime effect: Refers to the moderating influences of the ocean and usually refers to locations along coastlines or on islands

Continental effect: refers to the greater range between maximum and minimum temperatures at locations that are inland from the ocean or distant from large bodies of water

Specific Heat: The energy required to increase the temperature of a substance.

Ocean Currents

Ocean currents distribute temperatures between high latitudes (polar) and the low latitudes (equator). In general, warmer water moves poleward and cooler water towards the equator

Temperature patterns by hemisphere

Northern hemisphere: Dominated by continental effects (greater temperature ranges).
Southern hemisphere: Dominated by maritime effects (smaller temperature ranges and less seasonal variation).
Equatorial: hot all year long.

Atmospheric Pressure and Altitude

Air pressure: The weight of the atmosphere.
- Air pressure and density decrease with altitude (direct relationship).
Warm/humid air= High pressure.
Cold/dry air= Low pressure.
barometer measures air pressure.
anenometer=wind speed
wind vane=direction

Factors that influence the flow of winds

Pressure gradient force, Coriolis effect, and friction

Pressure gradient force

Drives air from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
-Isobar: an isoline used on a map to connect points of equal pressure.
Closer isobar spacing=stronger winds.

Coriolis effect

The apparent deflection of moving objects (wind, ocean currents, missiles) from
travelling in a straight path, in proportion to the speed of Earth's rotation at different latitudes. Deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere; maximum at the poles and zero along the equator.

Friction

Within the boundary layer, friction with Earth's surface decreases with altitude.Friction affects wind direction and speed.
- The amount of friction will vary with surface texture, wind speed, time of day/year, and atmospheric conditions

Cyclones

Low pressure centers characterized by surface convergence and rising air.
• Commonly associated with significant cloud formation and precipitation

Anticyclones

High pressure centers characterized by surface divergence and sinking
air.
• Commonly associated with relatively clear skies

ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) or Equatorial Low

A thermally caused low-pressure zone that almost circles Earth, with air converging and rising all along its extent.
• The converging air is transported by the trade winds

Subtropical Highs

Dynamic high-pressure areas roughly located between 20° to 35° N and S latitudes; responsible for the hot, dry areas of Earth's arid and semiarid deserts.
• Trade winds and westerly winds diverge out of the subtropical highs

Subpolar Lows

A region of low pressure centered approximately at 60° latitude in both hemispheres.
• Westerly winds and polar easterlies converge into the subpolar lows

Polar Highs

Weak, anticyclonic, thermally produced pressure systems positioned roughly over each pole
• Polar easterlies flow out if the polar highs

Land and sea breezes

Sea breezes
- Water heats more slowly than land during the day
- Wind blows from sea to land
• Land breezes
- At night, land cools faster
- Wind blows from land to sea

Mountain and Valley breezes

• Valley breeze: Mountain top during the day heats faster than valley-Upslope winds out of valley
• Mountain breeze:
- Mountain top cools faster at night
- Winds blow from mountain to valley, downslope
(upslope during day, downslope at night)

Monsoons

Seasonal reversal of winds , from land to
sea, in the tropics and sub tropics
• Summer: inland (wet)
• Winter: towards the
ocean (dry)

Chinook Winds

Warm downslope winds that flow down the leeward side of mountains. (dry)
• The zone of high pressure is on the windward side of the mountain, low pressure is on leeward side

Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Occurs due to gyres: The circulation systems within the oceans and is a significant area of marine and manmade litter (especially plastics) trapped within the North Pacific Gyre under the Subtropical High (STH).

Characteristics of El Nino

Atmospheric pressure decreases over the eastern Pacific and rises over the western Pacific. This change in pressure causes the trades to weaken and/or reverse direction.
• Upwelling off the west coast of South America declines during the warm phase

Feedback

A change in a system caused by the system's output.