development and learning(developmental edition)

developmental psychology

the scientific study of how and why people change over time.

nurture and nature

how our genetic inheritance (nature) and our life experiences (nurture) interact to shape our development.

continuity and stages

continuity refers to developmental changes that are slow and steady. Like building blocks building on top of each other.

stability and change

helps us understand how and why people remain the same and some ways but also evolve and adapt in other ways as they go through different life stages

longitudinal research

studying the same individuals over time. like a photo album.

cross-sectional research

studying different groups of people of various ages at the same point in time.

psychosocial development

theory that individuals progress through a series of stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a major aspect of personality.

trust and mistrust

infancy(0-1) psychsocial conflict: trust in caregivers & world. positive outcome: hope Negative outcome: fear and suspicion about the world.

autonomy vs. shame/doubt

early childhood(1-3 yrs) Psychosocial conflict: independence in basic tasks. Positive outcome: will (independence). Negative outcome: shame and doubt in own abilities.

initiative vs. guilt

preschool (3-6) Psychosocial conflict: ability to initiate activities. Positive outcome: purpose. negative outcome: guilt about desires and impulses.

industry vs. inferiority

school age (6-12) psychosocial conflict: competence in school and friends. positive outcome: competency. negative outcome: feelings of inferiority.

identity vs. role confusion

adolescence (12-18) psychosocial conflict: personal identity and direction. Positive outcome: fidelity(loyalty) Negative outcome: role confusion and instability.

intimacy vs. isolation

young adulthood (18-40) psychosocial conflict: form intimate relationships. positive outcome: love. negative outcome: isolation and loneliness.

generativity vs. stagnation

middle adulthood (40-65) psychosocial conflict: productivity and caretaking. Positive outcome: care. Negative outcome: stagnation and self'-absorption.

integrity vs. despair

late adulthood(65+) Psychosocial conflict: refelction on life. Positive outcome: wisdom. Negative outcome: despair over life and achievements.

prenatal development

the process of growth and development within the womb, starting from birth and continuing after.

teratogens

harmful substances, such as drugs, alcohol, or infections that can cause developmental abnormalities or birth defects.

reflexes

automatic, instinctual responses that newborns are born with, aiding in survival.

rooting reflex

automatic response in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheek.

maturation

the biological growth process that leads to orderly changes in behavior, guided by genetics.

developmental milestones

key skills or behaviors that most children achieve by specific ages, such as walking, talking and problem solving. significant progress in physical, cognitive, and social development.

sensitive period

a critical time in early development when the brain is especially receptive to learning specific skills, such as language or motor skills.

fine motor coordination

the ability to control small muscle movements, enabling tasks like writing, buttoning, using utensils.

gross motor coordination

the ability to control large muscle movements, enabling tasks like walking, jumping, and balance.

visual cliff

an experimental setup used to study depth perception in infants.

puberty

the period of physical and hormonal changes

adolescent growth spurt

a rapid increase in height and weight that typically occurs during puberty

menopause

the natural biological process marking the end of a womans menstrual cycle. typically occurs around 50 yrs old.

sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.

X chromosome

both males and female have x. females typically have two X chromosome.

Y chromosome

sex chromosome found only in males. males typically have one x and one y

primary sex characteristics

the reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction such and ovaries, testes, etc.

Menarche

girls first menstrual cycle

secondary sex characteristics

physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction like facial hair.

spermarche

the boys first production of sperm

gender

the attitudes, feelings and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex.

sexual orientation

a persons sexual and emotional attraction to another person.

gender identity

an individual’s internal sense of being male, female, a blend of both, or neither.

gender roles

societal expectations and norms for behavior, attitudes, and activities

gender typing

the process by which children learn and adopt behaviors, interests, and roles considered appropriate for their gender according to cultural norms.

ecological systems theory

that a child’s development is influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems

microsystem

immediate family, friends, etc.

mesosytem

relationships between microsystem elements like your familys family(your moms sister)

exosystem

media or community indirectly affecting you

macrosystem

cultural or societal norms or economic conditions

chronosystem

major life transitions like moving or a pandemic

authoritarian parenting

a strict parenting approach where parents enforce high expectations and rigid rules.

permissive parenting

a relaxed approach to parenting where parents show warmth and responsiveness but have a few rules and low expectations

authoritative parenting

a balanced approach to parenting, combining high expectations with warmth and support.

temperament

the innate traits that influence how children respond to their environment, including their activity level, emotional reactivity, and adaptability. this forms the basis for later personality development.

imprinting

a rapid and instinctive form of early learning where certain animals, particularly birds, form strong attachments to the first moving object they see shortly after birth or hatching.

contact comfort

the sense of security and emotional relief derived from physical touch, particularly between infants and caregivers.

separation anxiety

a distress response experienced by infants or young children when separated from their primary caregiver

attachment styles

patterns of behavior that describe how children form emotional bonds with caregivers

secure attachment

a pattern where children feel confident and trust that their caregiver will meet their needs

avoidant attachment

a pattern where children exhibit independence and avoid seeking comfort from their caregiver, often resulting from caregivers who are emotionally unavailable or unresponsive

anxious attachment

a pattern where children are overly clingy and anxious about separation from their care giver

disorganized attachment

a pattern characterized by inconsistent or confused behaviors towards a caregiver, often resulting from trauma

adverse childhood experiences

potentially traumatic events or conditions such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, that occur before the age of 18 and can have lasting effects.

social clock

cultural timeline that sets expected ages for key life events, like starting a career, getting married, or having children, shaping social expectations for individuals.

emerging adulthood

transitional life stage from late teens to mid 20s, marked by exploration and self-discovery as individuals navigate career paths, relationship and personal identity.

adolescent egocentrism

stage in teenage development marked by an increased self-focus, leading to beliefs that one’s experiences are unique and that others are always observing them.

imaginary audience

phenomenon in adolescence where individuals believe others are constantly watching and judging them, making them highly self-conscious

personal fable

adolescent belief that one’s experiences are unique and special often leading to feelings of invulnerability and after an underestimation of personal risks.

possible selves

the different versions of who individuals might become in the future. ideal selves and feared selves.

social identity

an individuals sense of who they are based on their membership in social groups, like nationality, religion, or profession.

identity diffusion

a state where individuals have not yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, or values, often leading to uncertainty about their sense of self.

identity foreclosure

stage where individuals commit to goals, beliefs, or values without exploring alternatives, often adopting the expectations of parents or society.

identity moratorium

stage where individuals actively explore different life paths, beliefs, and values but have not yet made a final commitment, often leading to a period of uncertainty and experimentation

identity achievement

stage where individuals have explored various life paths and made firm decisions about their beliefs, values and goals, resulting in a clear and stable sense of self.

jean Piaget

he studied children’s developing cognition all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

sensorimotor stage

1st stage of piaget’s stages of cognitive development (birth to age 2) then infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions

object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched, developing during Piaget’s sensorimotor stage

preoperational stage

stage of cognitive development ( 2 to 7) where children develop language, symbolic thinking and imagination but struggle with logical reasoning and understanding others perspectives

pretend play

involves children acting out scenarios, roles, or situations. using their imagination, developing creativity, social skills and symbolic thinking

parallel play

stage in early childhood where children play alongside each other without directly interacting each focused on their own activity but observing and imitating others

animism

a belief in early childhood, common during Piaget’s preoperational stage, where children attribute lifelike qualities like feelings and intentions to inanimate objects

egocentrism

a characteristic of the preoperational stage where children struggle to see things from another person’s point of view believing others share their perspective

theory of mind

the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one’s own typically developing around 4 to 5.

concrete operational stage

3rd stage of cognitive development ages 7-11 where children develop logical thinking about concrete objects and understand concepts like conversation and reversibility.

conservation

the understanding that certain properties of objects, such as volume or mass, remain consistent despite changes in form or appearance. typically develops in concrete operational stage

reversibility

the ability to mentally reverse an action or operation. typically developing in the concrete operational stage.

formal operational stage

Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development (beginning at age 12) where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, solve hypothetical problems, and use deductive reasoning.

lev vygotsky

development psychologist known for his theory that social interaction plays a critical role in cognitive development, emphasizing the importance of culture, language, and the “zone of proximal development” in learning.

scaffolding

teaching method where a knowledgeable person provides tailored support to help a learner achieve new skills, gradually reducing assistance as the learner becomes more proficient.

zone of proximal development

the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance, emphasizing the importance of social interaction in learning

crystallized intelligence

refers to the knowledge and skills accumulated overtime through education and experience, improving with age and useful for problem solving based on facts and prior knowledge

fluid intelligence

the capacity to reason, solve novel problems, and think abstractly without relying on prior knowledge, generally peaking in early adulthood and gradually declining with age.

dementia

decline in cognitive functioning that in interferes with daily life, characterized by memory loss, impaired judgement and difficulties in communication and reasoning and often seen in older adults.

language

a system of communication using symbols, sounds, and grammar to convey thought, feelings and meaning

critical period

a specific time frame in early childhood when the brain is most receptive to learning language, making it easier to acquire fluency

phonemes

the smallest distinct units of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word

morphemes

the smallest units of meaning in a language, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words

semantics

the study of meaning in a language, focusing on how rods, phrases, and sentences convey meaning

grammar

the set of rules that govern how words should be combines in order to form sentences

syntax

the set of rules that determines the arrangement of words and phrases to from sentences in a language, affecting sentence structure and meaning.

cooing

early stage of language development, where infants produce repetitive, soft vowel sounds like “oo” and “ah” starting around 2 months of age

babbling stage

phase in language development, usually starting around 4-6 months. repetitive consonant sounds like “ba-ba”

one word stage

phase in language development. typically around age one. using single words

two word stage

phase in language development around age 2. where children combine 2 words