Dr. Mouseghy Midterm II study guide

nervous system

we take in info from the environment through our spinal cord, then we take the info from the spinal cord and make a decision

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Central Nervous System (CNS) functions

coordinates all voluntary and involuntary responses
integrates incoming information

spinal reflex

involuntary responses mediated by spinal cord and spinal nerves (reflexes)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Two types of neurons used by PNS to communicate

afferent neurons and efferent neurons

efferent neurons

neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body (outward); motor neurons

afferent neurons

neurons that take information from the senses to the brain (inwards); sensory neurons

Parts of PNS

sensory division and motor division

sensory division of PNS

carries info to brain and spinal cord

systems in the motor division of PNS

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms (aka fight or flight).

neuron

The functional unit of the nervous system, a nerve cell

types of neurons

sensory, motor, interneurons

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord (PNS to CNS)

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and are located between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands (aka effectors)

neuroglia

supporting cells; physical support, nutrient flow, waste removal, electrical insulation

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Action Potential (AP)

sudden, temporary reversal of voltage across cell membrane that travels through the axon to axon terminal to send messages

presynaptic neuron

neuron that sends the signal towards synapse

postsynaptic neuron

the neuron receiving signal at the end of the synapse

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron receive information from environment or other dendrites

multiple sclerosis

myelin sheath is inflamed and breaks down, which also damages the nerve fibers leading to plaque in nervous system (aka sclerotic patches of tissue). Creates motor, memory, and vision issues

Divisions of the brain

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

hindbrain

coordinated basic, automatic, and vital tasks

parts of hindbrain

medulla oblongata (controls vital automatic functions for internal organs), pons (respiration) , cerebellum (muscles and movement)

midbrain

relays visual and auditory sensory inputs to brain. Also controls circadian rhythm

forebrain

coordinates muscles related to vision and hearing

parts of forebrain

cerebrum, limbic system, hypothalamus, thalamus

cerebrum

receives and integrates information concerning emotions and conscious thought

Cerebrum has 4 lobes

frontal (motor activity, speech, conscious thought), parietal (sensory info from skin), occipital (sensory info from eyes), temporal (auditory info, language, perceptual judgment)

Hypothalamus

secretes hormones, regulates homeostasis
thirst, hunger, sex

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information; processes, receives. and transfers information

limbic system

several structures that regulate emotions and memory (Thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus)

parts of the ear

outer ear, middle ear, inner ear

outer ear

channels sound waves to tympanic membrane (pinna and auditory canal)

middle ear

amplifies sound from tympanic membrane (malleus, incus, stapes)

inner ear

sorts sounds by tone and converts them (cochlea)

reducing hearing loss in public spaces

ear plugs, be further away from speakers (recommended to have them elevated), and use quiet rooms if provided

parts of eyes

sclera, iris, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerves

Sclera

covers and protects eyeball

iris

regulates the amount of light entering the eye

cornea

bends/focuses incoming light

lens

fine focuses light

retina

contains cones (detail, color—red, blue, green) and rods (provide vision in dim light, shape, movement) that convert light signals into electrical signal

types of abnormal vision

farsighted (close items are blurry but can see far away), nearsighted (far items are blurry, can see close), astigmatism (abnormal curvature of cornea or lens)

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Pathway of light through the (left) eye

the left visual field is made up of the left half of what both eyes see; processed in right brain

Pathway of light through the (right) eye

the right visual field is made up of the left half of what both eyes see; processed in left brain

cardiovascular/circulatory system

transports essential nutrients, removes waste products,
protects the body by transporting immunity cells,
regulates temperature, pH, water, and electrolytes

parts of the cardiovascular system

heart, blood vessels, blood

heart

A hollow, muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

blood

Connective tissue made of plasma, erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets.

How blood flows through the heart

Right Atrium (deoxygenated blood from body) ->
Right Ventricle (pushes deoxygenated blood to lungs) -> Left Atrium (now oxygenated blood from the lungs) -> Left ventricle (pushes oxygenated blood to aortas, then to rest of the body)

types of blood vessels

arteries (thick vessels that carry O2-rich blood away from the heart), veins (carry O2-poor blood to the heart), capillaries (tiny blood vessel that regulates gas, nutrient, and waste exchange)

plasma

liquid portion of blood and does not contain cells; 99% water

stem cells

from bone marrow; can turn into any cell the body needs

Types of white blood cells (leukocytes)

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes

neutrophil

granular leukocytes; most abundant and first to fight infections and fungi

eosinophil

granular leukocytes; defense against parasites and releases chemicals to reduce allergic reactions

basophil

granular leukocytes; rarest white blood cell and secretes histamine in response to allergies

lymphocyte

agranular; next level after granular cells to protect body

monocyte

agranular; turn into macrophages to destroy pathogens and communicate with other white blood cells to alert them of the issue

how red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

hemoglobin- carries O2 in the red blood cells; distributes O2 from high to low concentration

cardiovascular diseases

heart attacks (blood supply to heart reduced/stopped) and strokes (blocked/burst arteries leading to and within the brain)

risks of cardiovascular disease

age, sex, genetics, diet, physical activity, diabetes, stress, smoking

respiratory system

Brings oxygen into the body. Gets rid of carbon dioxide. It filters air, maintains pH, fluid and thermal homeostasis, vocalization

upper respiratory tract

filters, warms, and moistens air; nose, nasal cavity, oral cavity, larynx

lower respiratory tract

exchanges gases; made up of larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and alveoli

larynx

aka voice box; speech, gas exchange, separates food and air

trachea

windpipe that divides into bronchial tree

bronchi

two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs.

bronchioles

smallest branches of the bronchi

Aveoli

sacs of the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by diffusion between the air and the blood

conducting zone

brings in air from atmosphere; upper tract + trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles

respiratory zone

gas exchange zone; alveoli/alveolar sacs

obstructive disease

difficulty exhaling air; bronchitis and asthma

restrictive disease

difficulty inhaling air; pneumonia, tuberculosis, lung cancer

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

poor airflow, difficulty breathing; emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma (restrictive and obstructive)

urinary system

maintains the fluid regulation of the body (osmoregulation); kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

process of how urine is created

kidney filters excess water and solutes from the blood
most of the water and solutes will be reabsorbed by the kidneys, the rest will be secreted via urine

ADH (anti diuretic hormone)

helps control the water balance of the body and affects the amount of urine produced by the kidney

aldosterone

retains salt; increases sodium reabsorption, which causes us to retain water

type 1 diabetes

disorder in which the body cannot produce enough insulin, which leads to the rise of blood sugar

type 2 diabetes

insulin is produced, but fatty deposits around cells block the insulin from being absorbed

negative feedback loop

brings your body closer to a set point; homeostasis

positive feedback loop

brings your body past a set point and keeps looping; childbirth stretches until baby is out