Introduction to Sociology Final (non-majors)

Sociology

The systematic study of society and social interaction

Sociological Imagination

The ability to understand how your personal troubles are linked to the operation of the larger society/historical period.

Positivism

The scientific study of social patterns based on facts and observations.

Antipositivism

The view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they approach social research.

Symbolic Interactionism

A micro-level theory focusing on the relationships among individuals within a society; people use symbols to create meaning.

Structural Functionalism

A macro-level theory that views society as a structure with interconnected parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals.

Conflict Theory

A macro-level theory that views society as a competition for limited resources, focusing on inequality and power struggles.

Macro-level analysis

A broad focus.

Micro-level analysis

A close-up focus.

Verstehen

German term that means 'to understand in a deep way'; an approach to understanding social interaction from an insider's point of view.

Social Construction of Deviance

The idea that deviance is not inherent but is defined by society.

Means of Production

The resources needed to produce goods.

Social Class Struggle

The conflict between those who own the means of production and those who must sell their labor.

Scientific Method

An established method for research that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing a study, conducting the study, and drawing conclusions.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables where a change in one coincides with a change in the other.

Field Research

Gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey.

Nonreactive Research

Using existing data, like content analysis of media or historical documents; research that does not include direct contact with subjects.

Hawthorne Effect

When study subjects behave in a certain way because they know they are being observed.

Observational Bias

The tendency of researchers to see what they want to see or find results that support.

Interpretive Framework

A sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or culture.

Code of Ethics

A set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association.

Empirical Evidence

Information that verifies by experience.

Value Neutrality

The duty of sociologists to strive to remain impartial and not be biased.

Quantitative Data

Number.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive.

Ethical Standards in Research

Guidelines requiring informed consent.

Culture

Shared values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects that constitute a people's way of life.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture is superior compared to others.

Xenocentrism

The belief that another culture is superior to one's own.

Cultural Imperialism

The deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture.

Moral Relativism

The idea that morality is not fixed, but is relative to one's culture.

Social Control

The regulation and enforcement of norms.

Formal Sanctions

Ways to enforce norms that are officially recognized and enforced by institutions.

Informal Sanctions

Casual expressions of approval or disapproval of behavior.

Language

A symbolic system of communication.

Symbols

Gestures, objects, and words.

High Culture

Cultural patterns that distinguish a society's elite.

Popular Culture

Cultural patterns that are widespread among a society's population.

Material Culture

The objects or belongings of a group of people.

Values

A culture's standard for discerning what is good.

Paradigms

Philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them.

Society

A group of people who live in a definable community and share a culture.

Hunter-Gatherer Society

A society whose economic structure is based on hunting animals and gathering vegetation.

Agricultural Society

A society that relies on permanent tools for farming.

Feudal Society

A hierarchical society where land ownership is granted in exchange for labor.

Industrial Society

A society characterized by reliance on mechanized labor.

Information Society

A society based on the production of information and service rather than material goods.

Collective Consciousness

The communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society.

False Consciousness

A way of thinking that prevents a person from perceiving the true nature of their social or economic situation.

Looking-Glass Self

The theory that a person's sense of self develops through perceptions of others.

Institutionalization

The act of implanting a convention or norm into society.

Anomie

A social condition defined by a lack of accepted social norms, leading to disconnect.

Achieved Status

The status a person can select, such as college graduate, nurse, etc.

Ascribed Status

The status a person is born with.

Charles Cooley

Developed the concept of the Looking-Glass Self Theory.

Émile Durkheim

Key figure in Functionalism; focused on collective consciousness and anomie.

Deviance

A violation of contextual, cultural or social norms

Crime

A behavior that violates official law

Sanctions

The means of enforcing rules

Positive Sanctions

Rewards given for conforming to norms

Negative Sanctions

Punishments for violating norms

Strain Theory

Theory that addresses the conflict between goals and the means available to achieve them; and deviance is result of this gap (Ex: The American Dream)

Primary Deviance

A violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects just self-image

Secondary Deviance

A person's self-concept and behavior begin to change after their actions are labeled as deviant

Labeling Theory

The idea that reality of deviance is constructed by society, which applies the word 'deviant' to certain people and behaviors

Legal Codes

The formal rules, laws, adopted by a society's political authority

Victimless Crime

Crimes where there's no harm to another individual (e.g., drug use, prostitution)

Nonviolent Crime

Crimes that involves the destruction or theft of property, but no harm to others (e.g., burglary)

Corporate Crime

Crimes committed by white collar worker in a business environment

Street Crime

Crimes that are committed by ordinary people against other people or organizations

White-Collar Crime

Crime committed by people of high social status in the course of their occupation (a broader category than corporate crime)

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

This perspective focuses on how the media shapes our perception of reality

Conflict Perspective

This perspective focuses on how media perpetuates the status quo and reinforces existing social inequalities

Functionalist Perspective

This perspective focuses on the manifest and latent functions media performs for society

Cyberfeminism

This is a perspective that applies feminist theory to a cyberspace and studies how gender is shaped in digital spaces

Media Control

The degree of ownership and influence over the media by corporations and the government

Media Representation

How various social groups are portrayed in the media

Entertainment Function of Media

Media's role in providing pleasure and relaxation from everyday life

Social Norm Function of Media

Media's role in defining and reinforcing social norms and expectations

Technology and Status Display

How the access to and display of certain technologies signifies social standing and wealth

GINI Coefficient

A measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income or wealth distribution within a nation (*0 means perfect equality, 1* means perfect inequality)

Capital Flight

The movement of capital (money, assets) from one nation to another, often to seek cheaper labor or lower taxes

Debt Bondage

A system where people are forced to pay off their debt; a form of modern-day slavery

Fourth World

A term for the most poor and marginalized populations, particularly indigenous groups, living in or outside of the recognized global order.

Race

A group of people who share a set of common physical characteristics (often skin color) deemed by society to be socially significant. *Socially constructed.*

Ethnicity

A shared cultural heritage, which may include language, religion, norms, practices, and history

Racism

A set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that is used to justify the superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group

Discrimination

The action of the unequal treatment of various categories of people

Privilege

Unearned access to resources (social power) that is only readily available to some people as a result of their advantage status

White Privilege

The unearned social advantage that U.S. citizens categorized as white receive solely based on their skin color

Scapegoat Theory

Theory suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group

Social Construction of Race

The idea that race is not biologically real but it's a concept

Pluralism (Multiculturalism)

A concept where racial and ethnic minority groups maintain their separate identities and cultures, but still participate equally in society

Functionalist View of Race

Race and ethnicity serve functions for society

Conflict View of Race

Race and ethnic relations are a result of economic and political exploitation by the dominant group to maintain power

Symbolic Interactionist View of Race

Race and ethnicity are part of our identity; focuses on how racial labels and interactions create and reinforce stereotypes and prejudice.

Gender

A term that refers to social and cultural distinctions and roles associated with being male or female

Sex

A term that refers to biological and physiological differences between males and females

Gender Socialization

The learning of gender roles through social factors

Gender Stratification

The unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women