#1 Social Psych Exam 1

Correlational Study

A research method that examines the relationship between two variables by objectively measuring them to see how they are related, without manipulating either one. Example: Tracking time points and adolescent depression scores.

Operational Definition

Turning an abstract construct or variable into a specific, objective, measurable metric for a study. Example: Operationally defining depression using 4 survey questions rated 1 to 5, or defining independence as the number of times per week an adolescent goes out without parents.

Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r)

A statistic measuring the direction (+ or -) and strength of a linear relationship between two variables. Values closer to +

p-value and Alpha Level

The probability (p) of detecting an effect in a sample if no actual effect existed in reality. In psychological research, finding an effect is considered statistically significant if the p-value is less than a predetermined alpha criteria (typically alpha = .05), meaning there is less than a 5% chance the result is a false positive.

Time and Depression Trend (Keyes et al., 2019)

A study showing a positive correlation over time where mean depressive affect symptom scores for both U.S. adolescent boys and girls remained relatively stable from 1991 until around 2011, followed by a sharp, dramatic spike upward through 2018. The year doesn’t cause depression!

Independence Trend (Twenge & Park, 2020)

A study tracking adolescent behavioral changes over time showing a negative correlation where the number of times per week U.S. 8th, 10th, and 12th graders go out without their parents experienced a steep decline from 1976 to 2014.

Third Variable Explanation (Social Media Example)

The concept that a correlation between two variables (like time and depression) might be explained by a third, unmeasured factor. Example study: Twenge & Campbell (2019) provided evidence showing a direct positive correlation between hours of daily social media

Global School Loneliness Study (Twenge et al., 2021)

A multi-national study across 36 countries showing a severe worldwide spike in adolescent school loneliness after the year 2012. Rises in loneliness were robustly predicted by smartphone access and internet use rather than broad macroeconomic changes like GDP, income inequality, or unemployment rates.

Adult Activities Decline (Twenge & Park, 2019)

A longitudinal study showing steady negative correlations over time for four foundational independence milestones among U.S. 12th graders from 1976 to 2016: holding a driver's license, having ever tried alcohol, having ever gone out on dates, and working for pay.

Independent Variable (IV) vs Dependent Variable (DV)

IV = The hypothesized 'cause' in an experiment that is actively manipulated or changed into distinct levels

Experimental Study Design Controls

A unique research methodology that allows investigators to make definitive causal claims. It relies on tight procedural control, establishing temporal precedence (the IV is manipulated before the DV is measured), random assignment to groups, and holding outside variables constant to eliminate alternative explanations (confounds).

Between-Subjects vs Within-Subjects Design

Between-subjects: An experimental layout where each participant is exposed to only ONE condition

Social Media Restriction Experiment (Hunt et al., 2018)

A 4-week between-subjects experiment where the IV was social network site (SNS) usage restriction (Experimental group: limited to 10 min

Baseline Interaction Finding (Hunt et al., 2018)

A secondary experimental finding demonstrating that restricting social media usage to 10 min

Demand Characteristics

Subtle or overt unintentional cues within a research study's environment or setup that reveal its true purpose or hypothesis to the participant, causing them to alter their natural behavior to match expectations.

Confederate

An actor who poses as a normal participant in a study but is actually working secretly with the experimenter to systematically manipulate the social situation or environment.

Replication

The scientific practice of repeating a research study using entirely different participants, and sometimes a different laboratory setting, to verify if the original behavioral findings are reliable and consistent.

Priming and Narcissism Experiment (Giacomin & Jordan, 2014)

An experimental study with three conditions where participants read a story loaded with either Interdependent words, Impersonal words, or Independent words. The DV measured scores on a narcissism scale, revealing that priming participants with independent concepts directly caused an increase in reported narcissism.

Cyberball Paradigm

A virtual, programmable ball-tossing computer game developed by Dr. Kipling Williams used to study the immediate psychological and emotional impacts of social rejection and ostracism on human mood.

Interpersonal Consequences of Rejection

Social exclusion can trigger extreme negative behavioral shifts. A real-world example cited in slides is speculation around the Columbine High School shooting, where severe bullying and chronic social rejection were highlighted as potential contributing factors alongside media violence, gun access, and mental illness.

Rejection and Aggression Experiment (DeWall et al., 2010)

An experiment utilizing Cyberball where the IV was the degree of social inclusion

Need to Belong Theory (Baumeister & Leary, 1995)

An evolutionary theory stating that the human drive to form and maintain stable social bonds is an innate, naturally selected survival mechanism. Ancient humans who lived in cooperative, interdependent groups successfully pooled resources for protection and reproduction, while isolated individuals faced dangerous, life-threatening conditions.

Buffering Against Rejection Experiment (Twenge et al., 2007)

A study where participants were told they would either end up 'Alone' in life (rejection condition) or were 'Accident Prone' (misfortune control condition). Afterward, they wrote about their last meal (neutral control), a favorite celebrity (parasocial relationship), or a favorite family member (real relationship). The DV was structural aggression measured by noise-blasting a partner in a competitive game.

Twenge et al. (2007) Buffering Outcome

The study revealed that writing about either a real relationship (family member) or a parasocial relationship (favorite celebrity) completely buffered against social rejection, neutralizing the aggressive noise-blasting behaviors normally triggered by the 'ending up alone' feedback.

Social Reconnection Opportunities (Maner et al., 2007)

An experiment where the first IV was being socially accepted or rejected by a study partner, and the second IV was being told they would interact with a brand-new, novel person later or not. The DV was a cash reward assigned to this new partner.

Maner et al. (2007) Interaction Outcome

The data showed that rejected participants became exceptionally prosocial and assigned significantly higher cash rewards to a brand-new partner, but ONLY when they anticipated a future interaction with them. This proves rejection triggers social reconnection behaviors only when there is a clear opportunity for acceptance.

Prevention Focus vs Promotion Focus (Lucas et al., 2010)

Prevention focus: A protective, anxiety-driven mindset often triggered by rejection that focuses heavily on preventing bad outcomes, typically leading to social avoidance. Promotion focus: A growth-oriented mindset focused on what can be actively gained, which helps individuals overcome rejection anxieties and escape social avoidance.

Social Dilemma

A foundational psychological conflict between short-term personal self-interest and long-term collective interest. If every individual acts purely in their own self-interest to maximize personal gains, it results in an inferior, suffering outcome for the entire group (e.g., roommates neglecting chores, leaving a house filthy).

Rational Actor Theory vs Evolutionary Cooperation

Rational Actor Theory (Economics) states that human beings are entirely self-interested wealth-maximizers who weigh costs and benefits purely for personal gain ($$). Evolutionary Psychology argues against this strict view, demonstrating that our evolved 'Need to Belong' drives us to help relationship partners because maintaining social group inclusion directly keeps us alive.

Direct Reciprocity & Tit-for-Tat Strategy

A structural strategy to solve social dilemmas that requires repeated, ongoing interactions. It operates on a direct transactional exchange ('I scratch your back, you scratch mine'). Under a strict 'tit-for-tat' ruleset, you mirror your partner's exact move: if they cooperate, you cooperate; if they cheat, you immediately punish them by non-cooperating.

Investment Game Experiment (Cochard et al., 2004)

A study comparing a repeated investment game to a one-shot game. Player 1 could invest money which doubled in value, and Player 2 decided how much cash to return. In the repeated interaction game, strong direct reciprocity emerged—the more money Player 1 initially trusted to Player 2, the more cash Player 2 reciprocated and returned.

Generous Tit-for-Tat Strategy (Van Lange et al., 2002)

An advanced cooperation strategy designed to cope with environmental 'noise' (situations where someone attempts to help but fails, or when a helpful act goes unnoticed). It functions as strict Tit-for-Tat plus 1 extra step of spontaneous, unearned cooperation to prevent a relationship from entering a destructive downward spiral of mutual punishment.

Van Lange et al. (2002) Noise Experiment

An experiment where real participants played an investment game with a computer. The first IV was the computer's strategy (Strict vs Generous Tit-for-Tat) and the second IV was the introduction of 'noise' (slashing the value of the participant's gift randomly). The DV was the amount given by the participant. Outcome: Generous tit-for-tat was far more successful at sustaining long-term cooperation when environmental noise was present.

Provokable Behavior & Marital Forgiveness Costs (McNulty & Russell, 2016)

A study tracking married couples over time evaluating partner agreeableness (adherence to social reciprocity norms), partner forgiveness tendencies, and the total number of marital transgressions (e.g., severe flirting, leaving without notice).

McNulty & Russell (2016) Interaction Outcome

The study revealed a major boundary condition for forgiveness: for spouses with low agreeableness (who do not follow social norms), having a highly forgiving partner backfired, causing a significant increase in their total number of marital transgressions over time because they faced no punishment.

Earning Forgiveness Experiment (Zechmeister et al., 2004)

A laboratory study where a Research Assistant (RA) accidentally gave a participant the wrong test, leading to automatic failure and negative feedback from a head researcher. The first IV was whether the RA apologized or not, and the second IV was whether the RA actively compensated by taking the blame with the boss. The DV measured actual participant forgiveness. Outcome: Forgiveness requires explicit signals (apologies and compensation) ensuring the offender will not exploit the victim again.

Downstream (Indirect) Reciprocity

An indirect cooperative system operating on the principle of public reputation ('what goes around comes around'). Individuals are motivated to help a stranger not because of a past favor, but because that stranger has a documented social reputation for being a helpful person.

Reputation-Driven Helping Study (Sommerfeld et al., 2007)

An investment game experiment where players were provided with explicit reputation data before choosing whether to give money. The DV was total cash invested. Outcome: Participants handed over significantly more money to partners labeled as 'helpful' compared to partners tagged as 'non-helpful' or those with 'no reputation info'.

Reputation Building Experiment (Hardy & van Vugt, 2006)

A group fund experiment where participants decided how much to contribute to a shared resource pool. The top 10 cash hoarders at the end kept real money. The IV was reputation visibility (contributions made public vs kept completely secret). Outcome: Making donations public caused individuals to donate significantly more cash, proving humans help strangers to actively buy a high-status public reputation.

Upstream Reciprocity ('Pay It Forward')

An indirect cooperative chain where receiving help from a benefactor induces a powerful psychological wave of gratitude. Instead of returning the favor directly to the original giver, this internal state of gratitude motivates the individual to turn around and help a completely unrelated stranger down the line.

Upstream Reciprocity Experiment (Bartlett & DeSteno, 2006)

A study where a participant's computer screen suddenly went black during a difficult task. The first IV was whether a confederate stepped in to fix the screen or not (creating a gratitude vs neutral state). The second IV was who asked the participant for help later while they waited for credit: the original confederate ('benefactor') or a completely new person ('stranger'). The DV was total time spent filling out a tedious, boring survey.

Bartlett & DeSteno (2006) Outcome

The results confirmed upstream reciprocity: participants who were helped by the confederate felt strong gratitude and spent significantly more time (minutes) filling out the survey for a brand-new stranger compared to the neutral control group, demonstrating a true 'pay-it-forward' mechanism.

Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin, 1968)

A large-scale social dilemma occurring when multiple independent actors have unhindered access to a shared, finite public resource (e.g., environmental pollution, global energy, localized water tables during a severe drought). Unchecked personal self-interest drives each actor to over-harvest the resource to maximize personal gain, ultimately causing the resource pool to collapse to absolute zero for everyone.

Group Identity Buffer Experiment (Kramer & Brewer, 1984)

A resource simulator study where groups managed a finite water source. The first IV was the remaining resource pool size (dangerously small vs safely large) and the second IV primed participants to feel either a shared collective 'In-Group' identity or an isolated 'Out-Group' identity. The DV was the amount of water harvested on the final turn.

Kramer & Brewer (1984) Resource Outcome

When shared water resources were dangerously depleted, activating a collective superordinate In-Group identity successfully restrained personal greed. Participants in the In-Group condition voluntarily harvested significantly less water to preserve the shared resource, while Out-Group participants completely exhausted the pool.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

A psychological theory stating that true, unselfish altruism exists in human nature. When an individual takes another person's perspective (empathy), they directly experience that person's negative emotional suffering, which triggers an internal motivation to help purely for the victim's relief, completely independent of personal costs or benefits.

Empathy vs Escape Altruism Experiment (Toi & Batson, 1982)

Participants listened to an audio interview of an injured student named Carol who fell behind in class. The first IV was processing instructions (High Empathy: adopt her perspective vs Low Empathy: listen objectively). The second IV manipulated physical escape costs (High Social Cost: Carol returns to class next week, forcing them to see her vs Low Social Cost: Carol studies entirely at home). The DV was the percentage of participants volunteering to help Carol catch up.

Toi & Batson (1982) Experimental Outcome

The study confirmed the Empathy-Altruism hypothesis: low-empathy participants acted purely out of self-interest, volunteering to help only when escape costs were high (to avoid seeing her in class). However, high-empathy participants volunteered at equally massive rates regardless of whether escape was incredibly easy or hard, proving that genuine perspective-taking overrides personal cost considerations.