Renaissance to WWII: Key Historical Events and Concepts

Renaissance

"rebirth"; cultural awakening in Europe

Secular

Non-religious, worldly

Patrons

Wealthy supporters of the arts

Vernacular

Everyday language

Humanism

Emphasis on individual and human achievement

Perspective

Artistic technique for 3D realism

Individualism

Importance of the individual over the group

Protestant

One who protested against Catholic Church

Reformation

Movement to reform the Church

Martin Luther

Posted 95 Theses in Wittenberg in 1517; criticized Church practices

Printing Press

Gutenberg's invention that spread Martin Luther's ideas fast

John Calvin

Believed in predestination; key doctrines include Total Depravity and Unconditional Election

Henry VIII

Wanted divorce; created Church of England in 1534

Act of Supremacy

1534 law that made Henry VIII the head of the Church of England

Scientific Revolution

Period of significant advancements in scientific thought

Total Depravity

Humans are sinful by nature

Unconditional Election

God chooses who is saved

Limited Atonement

Jesus died only for the elect

Perseverance of the Saints

The chosen will stay faithful

Wealth and political power of Church

Issues contributing to the Protestant Reformation

Selling indulgences

Practice criticized by Martin Luther

Ban on usury

Prohibition of interest on loans by the Church

Scientific Method

A systematic, repeatable approach used by scientists involving hypothesis, experiment, analyze, conclude, and repeat.

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

Factors that contributed to the Scientific Revolution, including voyages of discovery, rediscovery of ancient works, and inventions & institutions.

Voyages of Discovery

Global exploration inspired curiosity and a need for better navigation, maps, and technology.

Rediscovery of Ancient Works

Ancient Greek, Roman, and Islamic texts were translated into Latin and vernacular languages, introducing new ideas that challenged medieval thought.

Inventions & Institutions

New technologies (e.g., telescopes, printing press) and scientific societies helped spread knowledge.

Natural Philosophy

The term used for science before the Scientific Revolution, which mixed with moral philosophy, theology, numerology, alchemy, and magic.

Experiments Before the Revolution

Few experiments were conducted, with a heavy reliance on Greek authorities like Aristotle and Ptolemy.

Hypothesis

Form a testable prediction as the first step in the scientific method.

Experiment

Design and run tests as the second step in the scientific method.

Analyze

Evaluate results as the third step in the scientific method.

Conclude

Decide what findings mean as the fourth step in the scientific method.

Repeat

Confirm results through repetition as the fifth step in the scientific method.

Importance of Scientific Method

Objective evidence replaces speculation or dogma.

René Descartes

Philosopher & mathematician who invented analytical geometry and introduced skepticism.

Nicolas Copernicus

Astronomer & mathematician who challenged the geocentric model and introduced the heliocentric theory.

Galileo Galilei

Physicist & astronomer who improved the telescope and provided observational evidence supporting heliocentrism.

Isaac Newton

Mathematician, physicist, astronomer who developed calculus and the theory of universal gravitation.

Three Laws of Motion

1. Inertia: Objects stay at rest/motion unless acted on. 2. F = ma: Force = mass × acceleration. 3. Action = Reaction: Equal and opposite forces.

Conflict with the Catholic Church

Church believed in geocentric theory and saw heliocentrism as a challenge to divine authority.

Heresy

Speaking against Church teachings could lead to punishment or death.

Galileo's Trial

Tried by the Inquisition in 1633 and sentenced to house arrest.

Giordano Bruno

Promoted an infinite universe and was burned at the stake in 1600.

Legacy of the Scientific Revolution

Shifted focus from belief to evidence and established modern scientific disciplines.

Industrial Revolution

A period in the mid-1700s in England marked by the mass production of machine-made goods.

Natural Resources for Industrial Revolution

Coal as fuel source, iron ore for machines, and rivers for water power and transportation.

Agricultural Advancements

Crop Rotation improved soil fertility and the Enclosure Movement increased agricultural efficiency.

Key Inventions of Industrial Revolution

Spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves, Steam Engine by James Watt, and Bessemer Process by Henry Bessemer.

Malthusian Theory

Predicted population would outgrow food supply with negative checks like lower birth rates and positive checks like higher death rates.

Population Pyramids

Vertical axis shows age groups, horizontal axis shows population size (%).

ACE Strategy for Analysis

A: Answer the prompt, C: Cite evidence, E: Explain or elaborate.

Imperialism

Takeover of a country by a stronger nation for political, economic, and social gain.

Motivations for Imperialism

Industrialization, Nationalism, Racism/Ethnocentrism, and Humanitarian/Religious Goals.

Key Review Question: Countries in Africa

Britain and France claimed most land in Africa.

Key Review Question: Ideology of Racial Superiority

Racism / Social Darwinism.

Key Review Question: Sepoy Rebellion

Indian soldiers revolting against British rule on May 10, 1857.

Key Review Question: Suez Canal

The canal located in Egypt.

Key Review Question: Monroe Doctrine

U.S. speech warning Europe to stay out of the Americas.

First Estate

Clergy (1% of population) - wealthy, privileged, paid no taxes

Second Estate

Nobility (2%) - owned land, paid minimal taxes

Third Estate

Commoners (97%) - peasants, bourgeoisie (middle class), paid most of the taxes, had little political power

Economic Crisis

Massive debt from wars (especially American Revolution) and lavish spending by the monarchy (e.g., Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette)

Rising bread prices

Led to widespread starvation

The Enlightenment

New ideas about natural rights (Locke), separation of powers (Montesquieu), and the Social Contract (Rousseau)

Weak Monarchy

King Louis XVI lacked leadership and Queen Marie Antoinette was disliked, leading to anger over refusal to reform or tax the First and Second Estates

Estates-General

Called in 1789 to deal with financial crisis

National Assembly

Formed by the Third Estate after being locked out of the Estates-General

Tennis Court Oath

Pledged to write a new constitution

Storming of the Bastille

July 14, 1789: symbol of royal tyranny

Moderate Phase

Phase 1 of the revolution (1789-1791) marked by the formation of the National Assembly and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Proclaimed that men are born free and equal in rights, guaranteeing liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression

Women's March on Versailles

Forced King to move to Paris

Constitution of 1791

Created a limited monarchy

Radical Phase

Phase 2 of the revolution (1792-1794) where the monarchy was abolished and France was declared a republic

Reign of Terror

Period during which 40,000+ were executed by guillotine for being seen as 'enemies of the revolution'

Radicalism

Complete restructuring of society

Republic

Government without a monarch

Guillotine

Execution method symbolizing revolutionary justice

The Directory

Phase 3 of the revolution (1795-1799) characterized by a 5-man executive body and a two-house legislature

Napoleon Bonaparte

Military leader who ends the revolution and seizes power

Impact of the French Revolution

End of absolute monarchy, rise of democratic ideals, secular society, weakened Catholic Church, power vacuum leading to Napoleon's dictatorship

Global Impact

Inspired revolutions in Haiti (Toussaint L'Ouverture) and Latin America, spread republicanism and nationalism, shocked European monarchies

Moderate reforms

Failed, radicals took over.

Robespierre's dictatorship

A period of power and corruption during the French Revolution.

Rigid Estate System (Old Regime)

Created deep divisions and injustice in French society.

Heavy taxes on the Third Estate

The 1st and 2nd Estates were mostly tax-exempt.

Bread shortages

Led to rising prices and widespread hunger.

Enlightenment Ideas

Inspired calls for natural rights, equality, and popular sovereignty.

King Louis XVI

Indecisive and ineffective leader during the revolution.

Marie Antoinette

Unpopular queen who symbolized royal excess.

Estates-General (1789)

Calling escalated tensions leading to the revolution.

Demands of the Third Estate

Included political representation, end of feudal privileges, fair tax system, and constitutional government.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)

Document stating all men are born free and equal in rights.

Rights included in the Declaration

Liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

Law as expression of the general will

Citizens have a right to participate in lawmaking.

Freedom of speech, press, and religion

Guaranteed rights in the Declaration.

Exclusion from rights

Women, slaves, and non-citizens were excluded from these rights at the time.

English Bill of Rights (1689)

Limited monarchy's power and included legal rights like trial by jury.

U.S. Bill of Rights (1791)

Included individual freedoms and protection from unjust punishment.