HIST 117 FINAL STUDY SET

Concert of Europe

established after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed to maintain stability by promoting collective diplomacy among major European powers, shaping early notions of international cooperation and balance of power.

Congress of Vienna

in 1815 redefined European borders and power dynamics after the Napoleonic era, laying the groundwork for a century of relative peace through its principles of legitimacy, compensation, and balance of power.

1848

marked a period of widespread revolutionary upheaval across Europe, with uprisings driven by demands for political reform, social justice, and national independence, challenging the established order and paving the way for future movements.

Springtime of Nations

refers to the revolutionary wave of 1848, characterized by mass uprisings and nationalist movements across Europe, challenging monarchical rule and promoting ideals of democracy and self-determination.

Nationalism

emerging in the 19th century, fueled the desire for self-governance and cultural identity among diverse peoples, reshaping political boundaries and leading to the formation of nation-states and the redrawing of maps.

Italy, Risorgimento

, or Italian unification, was a 19th-century movement that sought to unify the Italian peninsula under a single, independent nation-state, challenging centuries of foreign domination and regional fragmentation.

Garibaldi, Cavour, Mazzini

were key figures in Italy's Risorgimento, with Garibaldi leading military campaigns, Cavour orchestrating political diplomacy, and Mazzini inspiring nationalist fervor through his advocacy for Italian unity.

Prussia to Germany

marked the consolidation of German states into a unified nation-state, reshaping the balance of power in Europe and contributing to the continent's geopolitical landscape.

Otto von Bismarck

as the architect of German unification and the first Chancellor of the German Empire, wielded realpolitik to secure Prussian dominance in Europe, fundamentally reshaping the continent's balance of power and diplomatic landscape.

Tsar Alexander II

reign in Russia saw significant reforms, including the emancipation of serfs in 1861, yet his assassination in 1881 underscored the challenges of modernization amidst growing discontent and revolutionary fervor.

Franco

culminating in the unification of Germany and the capture of Napoleon III, marked a turning point in European power dynamics, elevating Prussia under Bismarck and laying the groundwork for German hegemony.

Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto

outlined the principles of communism, advocating for class struggle and the eventual overthrow of capitalist systems, profoundly influencing revolutionary movements worldwide.

Proletariat

as the working class under industrial capitalism, became a central focus of Marxist theory, driving class consciousness and revolutionary aspirations for social and economic equality.

Socialism

emerging as a response to the inequalities of industrial capitalism, advocates for collective ownership of the means of production and the redistribution of wealth to promote social justice and economic equality.

Anarchism

rejecting hierarchical authority and advocating for voluntary cooperation and mutual aid, emerged as a radical political philosophy challenging both capitalist and statist systems.

V.I. Lenin, Bolshevism

in the Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the establishment of the world's first communist state, profoundly shaping 20th-century politics and international relations.

Trotsky and Stalin

prominent figures in the early Soviet Union, symbolize contrasting visions of communism, with Trotsky advocating for international revolution and Stalin consolidating power through authoritarianism and industrialization.

Industrial Revolution

beginning in the late 18th century, transformed societies through mechanization, urbanization, and mass production, ushering in unprecedented economic growth and social change.

Arkwright and Watt

pioneers of the Industrial Revolution, revolutionized textile manufacturing and steam engine technology, respectively, catalyzing the transition to modern industrial society.

Romanticism

a cultural and artistic movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, celebrated emotion, nature, and individualism, influencing literature, art, and music across Europe.

Lord Byron, Mary Shelley

exemplify the themes of individualism and the sublime within the Romantic movement, contributing to the cultural and literary landscape of the early 19th century.

Triple Alliance, Triple Entente

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and France, Russia, Great Britain were rival military alliances in Europe before World War I, reflecting the continent's precarious balance of power and escalating tensions.

Sick Man of Europe, Tanzimat Reforms

in the 19th century in an attempt to modernize and centralize its administration, yet struggled to contend with internal dissent and external pressures from European powers.

Pearl Harbor

propelled the United States into World War II, reshaping global alliances and ultimately leading to the defeat of the Axis powers.

Stalingrad and Midway

with the Soviet victory at Stalingrad halting the German advance on the Eastern Front, and the American victory at Midway shifting the balance of naval power in the Pacific against Japan.

Hiroshima

a tragic and controversial event, marked the first use of nuclear weapons in warfare, altering the course of history and prompting debates on the morality and consequences of such technology.

Yalta Conference

attended by Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, shaped post-World War II geopolitics by outlining plans for the occupation and reconstruction of Europe, laying the groundwork for the Cold War.

Indian National Congress

founded in 1885, played a crucial role in India's struggle for independence from British colonial rule, evolving into the leading political party that ultimately led to India's independence in 1947.

Mohandas Gandhi

known as the Mahatma or "Great Soul," pioneered nonviolent resistance as a means of achieving social and political change, becoming the leader of India's independence movement and inspiring civil rights movements worldwide.

Samuel Colt, The American System

invention of the revolver and implementation of interchangeable parts revolutionized firearm manufacturing, contributing to the rise of American industrialization and the expansion of the firearms industry worldwide.

Henry Ford, the assembly line

introduction of the assembly line in automobile production transformed manufacturing processes, increasing efficiency and reducing costs, thus making cars more affordable and accessible to the masses.

Berlin Conference

884-1885, convened to regulate European colonization and trade in Africa, formalized the "Scramble for Africa" among European powers, leading to the partitioning of the continent and significant geopolitical consequences for Africa and its peoples.

Scramble for Africa

in the late 19th century saw European powers aggressively colonizing and exploiting African territories for resources and strategic advantage, reshaping Africa's political, economic, and social landscape.

Adowa and Omdurman

in Ethiopia and Sudan, respectively, challenged European imperial ambitions and highlighted the resilience of African resistance movements against colonial incursions, influencing subsequent anti-colonial struggles.

Boer War

1899-1902 fought between the British Empire and the Boer republics in South Africa, highlighted the complexities of imperialism and fueled debates over the ethics and consequences of colonial rule.

Cecil Rhodes

a British imperialist and mining magnate, epitomized the era of "New Imperialism" with his expansionist vision of British dominance in Africa, leaving a controversial legacy marked by exploitation and racial segregation.

Jules Ferry

a French statesman, championed colonial expansion and played a significant role in France's imperialist policies during the late 19th century, advocating for the civilizing mission and the spread of French influence abroad.

Clive and Plassey

1757, led by Robert Clive of the British East India Company, marked a pivotal moment in British colonial rule in India, solidifying British control over Bengal and laying the foundation for British dominance on the Indian subcontinent.

Firman

refers to royal decrees or orders issued by Ottoman sultans, granting privileges or rights to individuals or groups, often used in the context of European powers negotiating treaties and concessions within the Ottoman Empire.

British East India Company

established in the early 17th century, played a central role in British imperialism in India, controlling vast territories, monopolizing trade, and laying the groundwork for British colonial rule in the subcontinent.

British Raj

established after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, refers to British rule in India until independence in 1947, shaping India's political, economic, and social institutions and leaving a lasting legacy on the subcontinent.

Sepoy Rebellion

sparked by grievances over cultural insensitivity and perceived religious disrespect, led to significant political changes and intensified British control over the subcontinent.

Economic Imperialism

refers to the domination of foreign economies by industrialized nations through investment, trade agreements, and control of key resources, shaping global economic relationships and perpetuating disparities between wealthy and developing nations.

United Fruit Company

, a major American corporation operating in Central America and the Caribbean in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, wielded significant economic and political influence, often at the expense of local populations, contributing to the concept of "banana republics."

Panama Canal

in the early 20th century, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, revolutionized global trade and transportation, reducing shipping times and costs and reshaping geopolitical dynamics in the Americas and beyond.

Suez Canal

1869 facilitated maritime trade and navigation between Europe and Asia, transforming global transportation routes and enhancing European imperial interests in Africa and the Middle East.

Opium War

between China and Britain in the mid-19th century, fueled by British efforts to expand trade in opium, marked a turning point in Chinese history, leading to the erosion of Chinese sovereignty and the imposition of unequal treaties.

Boxer Rebellion

in China in 1900, driven by anti-foreign sentiment and opposition to Western influence, resulted in a violent uprising against foreign powers and Chinese Christians, ultimately leading to increased foreign intervention and the weakening of the Qing dynasty.

Self Strengthing

in late Qing China aimed to modernize the country's military and economy while preserving traditional values, reflecting efforts to navigate the challenges of Western imperialism through selective adaptation.

Empress Cixi

Qing dynasty played a significant role in late 19th and early 20th-century Chinese politics, wielding power behind the throne and overseeing efforts to modernize China while resisting foreign influence.

Taiping Rebellion

mid-19th-century China, led by Hong Xiuquan, sought to overthrow the Qing dynasty and establish a utopian Christian state, resulting in widespread devastation and loss of life but also influencing later revolutionary movements.

Tokugawa Shogunate

which ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868, implemented policies of isolation and centralized feudal rule, shaping Japan's social, political, and economic structures for over two centuries.

Closed Country Edict

enacted by the Tokugawa shogunate, restricted foreign influence and prohibited Japanese citizens from traveling abroad, contributing to Japan's policy of isolation and shaping its relationship with the outside world.

Dutch Studies

refers to the study of Western sciences and technologies by Japanese scholars during the Tokugawa period, influencing Japan's intellectual and technological development and contributing to the eventual Meiji Restoration.

Meiji Restoration

1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the restoration of imperial rule in Japan, leading to rapid modernization, industrialization, and the emergence of Japan as a major world power.

Samurai

Japan's warrior class during the feudal era, played a central role in Japanese society, embodying principles of loyalty, honor, and martial prowess, until their decline following the Meiji Restoration.

Muslim League

founded in 1906, advocated for the rights and interests of Muslims in British India, ultimately playing a crucial role in the creation of Pakistan in 1947.

Ho Chi Minh

a Vietnamese revolutionary leader and founding father of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, led the Viet Minh in their struggle against French colonial rule and later against American intervention during the Vietnam War.

Marshall Plan

initiated by the United States in 1948, provided economic assistance to Western European countries devastated by World War II, fostering economic recovery and stability while also bolstering Western influence during the Cold War.

NATO/Warsaw Pact

were rival military alliances formed during the Cold War, with NATO comprising Western democracies and the Warsaw Pact comprising Eastern Bloc countries, reflecting the division of Europe into two competing blocs.

Cuban Missile Crisis

in 1962, a standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union over the placement of nuclear missiles in Cuba, brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, highlighting the dangers of Cold War tensions and the importance of diplomacy in crisis management.

Mao Zedong (Tse Tung)

, the founding father of the People's Republic of China, led the Chinese Communist Party to victory in the Chinese Civil War, implementing socialist reforms and initiating transformative campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.

Great Leap Forward

in the late 1950s aimed to rapidly transform China's economy through collectivization and industrialization, but resulted in widespread famine and economic hardship, illustrating the dangers of centralized planning and ideological fervor.

Edo/Tokyo

served as the center of political power in Japan during the Tokugawa shogunate, later becoming the capital of modern Japan and a symbol of its rapid industrialization and urbanization.

Sino

1894-1895, fought between Japan and China over influence in Korea, marked Japan's emergence as a regional power and resulted in the cession of Taiwan and other territories to Japan.

Russo

1904-1905, fought over competing imperial interests in Manchuria and Korea, ended with a surprising Japanese victory, shaking the foundations of European imperialism and influencing global perceptions of Asian power.

Bolsheviks and Mensheviks

were factions within the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, with the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin advocating for revolutionary Marxism, while the Mensheviks pursued a more gradualist approach to socialism.

February and October Revolutions

_________overthrew the Tsarist regime in Russia, leading to the establishment of a provisional government, while the _______ of the same year, led by the Bolsheviks, seized power and established a socialist state.

Duma

established by Tsar Nicholas II in 1906, was Russia's first parliamentary body, intended to appease demands for political reform, but often constrained by the autocratic power of the tsar.

Tsar Nicholas II

the last emperor of Russia, ruled during a period of profound social and political upheaval, ultimately abdicating in 1917 amidst the revolutions that led to the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Brest

in 1918 ended Russia's involvement in World War I, but at a heavy cost, ceding large territories to Germany and its allies and marking the beginning of Russia's isolation from European affairs.

Schlieffen Plan

devised by German General Alfred von Schlieffen before World War I, aimed to quickly defeat France before turning to face Russia, but ultimately failed, leading to years of trench warfare on the Western Front.

Somme and Verdun

during World War I were among the deadliest in history, resulting in immense casualties and exerting significant strain on the combatants, shaping public perceptions of the war's brutality and futility.

Woodrow Wilson

the 28th President of the United States, played a key role in shaping the post-World War I world order, advocating for principles of self-determination and international cooperation, as outlined in his Fourteen Points.

14 Points

presented in 1918 as a basis for peace negotiations after World War I, called for principles such as open diplomacy, free trade, and the right to self-determination, influencing the post-war settlement and the establishment of the League of Nations.

Sykes

1916, a secret agreement between Britain and France, outlined their plans to divide the Ottoman Empire's territories in the Middle East into spheres of influence, shaping the modern boundaries of the region and influencing its geopolitical dynamics.

Balfour Declaration

1917 expressed British support for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, laying the groundwork for the eventual creation of the state of Israel and shaping the trajectory of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Zionism

a movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, emerged in the late 19th century in response to rising anti-Semitism and led to the establishment of Israel in 1948.

Treaty of Versailles

signed in 1919 to formally end World War I, imposed harsh penalties on Germany, contributing to economic instability and fostering resentment that would later fuel the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism.

Kemal Ataturk

founder of the Republic of Turkey, led efforts to modernize and secularize Turkey after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, implementing wide-ranging reforms to transform Turkish society and governance.

League of Nations

, established after World War I to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, faced challenges in maintaining peace and was ultimately unable to prevent the outbreak of World War II.

Weimar Republic

established in Germany after World War I, faced economic instability and political turmoil, contributing to the rise of extremist movements like Nazism and the eventual collapse of democratic governance.

Great Depression

triggered by the stock market crash of 1929, led to widespread unemployment, poverty, and economic hardship, exacerbating social and political tensions worldwide.

Adolf Hitler

leader of the Nazi Party and Chancellor of Germany, orchestrated the rise of Nazism, implementing fascist policies and ultimately leading Germany into World War II, resulting in unprecedented devastation and loss of life.

Benito Mussolini

founder of the Fascist Party and leader of Italy, established a totalitarian regime characterized by nationalism, authoritarianism, and aggressive expansionism, aligning Italy with Nazi Germany during World War II.

Fascism

an authoritarian and nationalist ideology, emerged in interwar Europe, emphasizing the supremacy of the state, militarism, and the suppression of individual freedoms, leading to the establishment of totalitarian regimes in Italy, Germany, and other countries.

Nazism

, the ideology of the Nazi Party in Germany, combined elements of fascism with virulent anti-Semitism and racial theories, leading to the persecution and genocide of millions during the Holocaust and plunging the world into World War II.

Nuremberg Codes

established after World War II, laid out principles for ethical medical research and experimentation, developed in response to the atrocities committed by Nazi doctors during the Holocaust.

Final Solution

implemented by Nazi Germany during World War II, aimed to systematically exterminate European Jews and other targeted groups through genocide, resulting in the Holocaust and the murder of millions.

Holocaust

perpetrated by Nazi Germany during World War II, resulted in the systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of others, including Roma, disabled individuals, and political dissidents, leaving an indelible mark on human history.

Rape of Nanking

in 1937, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, saw the mass murder, rape, and torture of Chinese civilians by Japanese soldiers, leading to widespread condemnation and shaping international perceptions of Japanese wartime atrocities.

Cultural Revolution

initiated by Mao Zedong in 1966, aimed to purge bourgeois elements and revive revolutionary fervor, resulting in widespread violence, social upheaval, and economic disruption.

Deng Xiaoping

a prominent Chinese leader, implemented economic reforms and opening policies in the late 20th century, transforming China's economy and paving the way for its emergence as a global economic powerhouse.

Cold War

a geopolitical and ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union, dominated international relations from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, shaping global politics, diplomacy, and military alliances.

Decolonization

refers to the process by which colonial empires dissolved and former colonies achieved independence, reshaping the political map of the world and leading to the emergence of new nation-states across Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.

Mikhail Gorbachev

the last leader of the Soviet Union, introduced reforms such as glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), aiming to revitalize the Soviet system but inadvertently contributing to its dissolution and the end of the Cold War.