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What is Nature?
Genetics that influences who we are
What is heredity?
Passing of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another
What is the “Concept of Universal Grammar”, suggested by Chonsky?
A theory that all humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language and to speak a variety of languages
What is Nurture?
Everything else aside from genetics that shapes our behavior and personality
What are fraternal twins?
Twins that come from two eggs (dizygotic) and have different DNA
If identical twins were raised separately but had similarities, where would their similarities stem from?
Genetics
If fraternal twins were raised in the same environment, where would their similarities stem from?
Environment
What is heritability?
A measure of how much a trait’s variation can be attributed to genetic differences in a population
The actual number is called the heritability coefficient (quotient)
If I was in a more uniform environment, would the heritability increase or decrease?
Increase because the difference would mostly be just genetics
What is a trait?
Characteristics determined by genetics
What are genes?
Segments of DNA (DNA has many genes)
What is eugenetics?
The belief in improving the genetic quality of human population by selectively breeding desirable traits and discouraging reproduction among those with traits considered undesirable
What are the two main types of the nervous system?
Peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system
What is the central nervous system consisted of?
A brain and a spinal cord that are encased in bone
What is the peripheral nervous system consisted of?
Everything outside the brain and spinal cord
What does the peripheral nervous system do?
Carry information to and away from the central nervous system
What is peripheral nervous system mainly separated into?
Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
What does the somatic nervous system do?
Processes incoming sensory information and controls our voluntary movements
What happens in the somatic nervous system specifically?
Brings sensory (afferent) neurons picked up from the environment to the cerebral cortex in the CNS, where the interneurons process the information. The CNS (cerebral cortex) then sends a response via motor (efferent) neurons to command specific muscles to either contract or relax for voluntary movements
What are reflexes that happens in the somatic nervous system?
Simple movements that are controlled directly by the spinal cord without involving the brain that happens without conscious thought to protect us
What does the autonomic nervous system do?
Regulate involuntary functions in the body
How can autonomic nervous systems be mainly separated into?
Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
Cause a fight or flight response that allows you to react in threatening situations that’s most advantageous to your survival
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
Calms body after the fight or flight response and returns it to homeostasis, which is a state of balance
What does the spinal cord do?
Connects brain to the rest of the body and carries messages
What are glial cells?
Cells that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport to the neurons
Why can’t glial cells be detected by electricity?
They do not produce electrical impulses
What are nerves?
Bundle of neurons that are the basic units of the nervous system
What does the soma do?
Protects and keeps the nucleus healthy
What does the dendrites do?
Detect and receive messages, and passes them to the soma
What does the axon do?
Respond to signals from the dendrites and soma and transmits action potential to the axon terminal
What does the myelin sheath do?
Protect axons, speeding up transmission of action potential
What is a problem with the myelin sheath?
Can lead to diseases
What happens when action potential reaches the axon terminal?
Reaches the terminal button, where the neurotransmitters that were stored in the synaptic vesicles are released, causing them to pass the synaptic gap and lock into the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron
What is the synaptic gap?
Area between the presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron
What is a neuron’s resting membrane potential?
When a neuron is in a waiting state, ready to receive enough excitatory input from neurotransmitters to reach a firing threshold
What is a firing threshold of a neuron?
Minimum level of stimulation required to trigger action potential
What is an excitatory neurotransmitter?
Neurotransmitters that make neurons more likely to fire by causing depolarization
What is the opposite of excitatory input of a neuron?
Inhibitory input
When a neuron is at its resting membrane potential, is it polarized or depolarized?
Polarized, meaning that charge is positive outside of the neuron
When a neuron is polarized, what is its charge?
-70 millivolts
When does action potential (neural firing) occur?
When neurons reaches its firing threshold
What is the “All or None Law” when neurons reach its firing threshold?
Neurons will fire with the same intensity every time
After emitting action potential, what period does it go to next, and what is it?
Refractory period, which is a brief period where neurons can’t fire again and the neuron repolarizes
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers
After the refractory period is complete, what happens next, and what is it?
Reuptake, which is the process where the presynaptic neuron reabsorb the neurotransmitters stuck on the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron
What is another possibility that could occur instead of reuptake?
Breaking of neurotransmitters by enzymes
What does disruptions to neural firing cause?
Disorders such as multiple sclerosis
What is the most excitatory neurotransmitter?
Glutamate
What does glutamate mostly contribute to?
Learning and long term memory
What is the most inhibitory neurotransmitter?
GABA (Gamma Aminobutyric Acid)
What does GABA mostly contribute to?
Control anxiety in the CNS
What does acetylcholine mostly contribute to?
Memory, learning, and movement
What does dopamine mostly contribute to?
Giving pleasure
What is it thought that a lack of dopamine can associate to?
Parkinson’s Disease
What is it thought that an excess of dopamine can associate to?
Schizophrenia
What does endorphins mostly contribute to?
Reduce pain
What does noradrenaline (norepinephrine) mostly contribute to?
Increased awareness, as it is involved in fight or flight responses, and managing and regulating sleep cycles
What are the two neurotransmitters thought that low levels of them could associate to depression?
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin
What does serotonin mostly contribute to?
Regulate mood, appetite, and sleep
What are the 7 most common neurotransmitters?
Glutamate, GABA (Gamma Aminobutyric Acid), Acetylcholine (Ach), Dopamine, Endorphins, Noradrenaline (norepinephrine), Serotonin
What are psychoactive drugs?
Substances that influences synaptic transmission, causing changes in the normal activities of the CNS
What are the two types of psychoactive drugs that affect neurotransmitter receptors?
Agonists and antagonists
What does direct agonists do?
Mimics neurotransmitters or hormones and binds to receptors
What does indirect receptors (reuptake inhibitors) do?
Prevent reuptake, causing neurotransmitters to stay in the synapse longer, leading to increased stimulation of the postsynaptic receptors
What does antagonists do?
Block neurotransmitters from binding to receptors, slowing neural activity
What are some common effects of psychoactive drugs?
Alter mental states and increase dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (the ‘pleasure center’ of the brain)
They create tolerance and could lead to physical dependence, where a person might need to take drugs to avoid withdrawal symptoms, and psychological dependence, where a person feels emotional cravings towards the drug
Effects depends on which neurotransmitters its influencing
What is addiction a combination of?
Physical and psychological dependence
What is the blood-brain barrier?
Allow some chemicals to pass from blood to brain but preventing others
What are the four main classifications of psychoactive drugs?
Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens (psychedelics)
What are the effects of depressants?
Slow the CNS, creating drowsiness, sedation, or sleep.
What are some common examples of depressants?
Alcohol and barbiturates (tranquilizers), which are agonists of GABA
Opioids (opiates; narcotics) are a specific type of depressant. What are they?
Direct agonists for endorphins
What are some common examples of opioids (opiates; narcotics)?
Morphin, heroin, and oxycodone
What are the effects of stimulants?
Activate sympathetic nervous systems
What are some commonly used stimulants, and what are their functions?
Caffein, which is an antagonist for adenosine (causes sleep-inducing effects), cocaine, which inhibits reuptake for dopamine, and nicotine, which is a direct agonist for acetylcholine
What are the effects of hallucinogens?
Cause sensory or perceptual distortions, altering mood and affecting thinking
What are some commonly used hallucinogens (psychedelics)?
THC, which are very mild hallucinogens, and marijuana
What are SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)?
A type of antidepressant that increases the level of serotonin
What is an example of SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)?
Prozac
What is the hindbrain consisted of?
Medulla oblongata, pons, RAS (Reticular Activating System), and the cerebellum
What does the medulla oblongata do?
Regulate autonomic functions
What does the pons do?
Connect the brain stem and the cerebellum, helping to coordinate communication between the left and right side of the body. They also take part in managing and regulating sleep-cycles (like norepinephrine)
What does the RAS (Reticular Activating System) do?
Controls arousal
What does the cerebellum do?
Controls voluntary muscle movement, creating balance, keeping you steady. They also play a part in implicit memory, which is a memory that you don’t have to consciously recall to carry out
What is the brain stem consisted of?
Medulla, pons, RAS (Reticular Activating System)
What are the 3 parts of the brain?
Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
What does the midbrain contain, and what do they do?
Have components called the tectum and tegmentum that control visual and auditory reflexes
What is the limbic system and the cerebral cortex a part of?
Forebrain
What is the limbic system made out of?
Thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
What does the thalamus do?
Receive sensory information except for smell and sends it to the cortex, each grouped by different senses for further processing
What does the hypothalamus do?
Initiate fight or flight response, regulating the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. They create motivation to eat and when to stop eating. They also create sexual motivation
Fight or Flight, Feeding, Fornication —> 3 Fs
What does the amygdala do?
Creates anger, aggression, or fear (afraid). They also convert highly emotional memories into long term ones
What does the hippocampus do?
Convert short term memory into long term ones and takes part in retrieving and processing declarative memory such as facts and events. They also create spatial memories, which are memories of the location of objects or places
What does the damage to the hippocampus lead to?
Anterograde amnesia, which is a condition where a person cannot form new memories, but the old ones still remain because they are stored in the neocortex
Retrograde amnesia is the loss of old memories
What is the cerebral cortex and what is it made out of?
Outermost layer of the forebrain and made out of 4 lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe
F.P.O.T
What are the frontal lobe’s 2 most significant areas, and what do they do?
The prefrontal cortex, which performs high-level cognitive functions such as decision-making and impulse control. And the motor cortex that initiates voluntary contralateral movements, meaning that the left hemisphere controls movements on the right side of the body. They are also organized in a way that body parts that make detailed motor functions such as fingers and face get more tissue
What is the parietal lobe’s most significant area, and what does it do?
Somatosensory cortex, which receives and processes sensory information of touch. They are contralateral, meaning that the left hemisphere controls movements on the right side of the body. They are also organized in a way that body parts that require higher sensitivity like the lips and fingers get more tissue
What is the occipital lobe’s most significant area, and what does it do?
Primary visual cortex, which receives and processes sensory information for vision
What is the temporal lobe’s most significant area, and what does it do?
Primary auditory cortex which receives and processes sensory information for sound. And the auditory association cortex which interprets and gives meaning to those sounds
