Existentialism: Sartre, Camus, & de Beauvoir

According to Sartre, the claim "I have to be a doctor, it's what my mother wanted" is an example of what, and why?

Bad Faith. It is a denial of one's radical freedom by telling oneself that one's life or choices are determined by external factors, ignoring all other possibilities and the fact that existence precedes essence.

Jean-Paul Sartre used the example of a paper-knife to explain his central tenet. What is this tenet, and how does the paper-knife illustrate it?

Existence precedes essence. A paper-knife is conceived by a creator with a specific purpose (its essence) before it is made (its existence). Humans, in contrast, are born into the world (exist) without a pre-defined purpose and must create their own essence through their choices and actions.

What is the crucial difference between Albert Camus's concept of the Absurd Hero and Sartre's concept of living in good faith?

The Absurd Hero (Camus) confronts the meaningless of existence and lives in revolt against it without creating a new meaning, defiantly enjoying life anyway. Living in good faith (Sartre) involves accepting radical freedom and actively creating one's own meaning and essence, which Camus would view as a form of philosophical suicide.

Camus argued that most people commit a form of "suicide" to escape the Absurd. What specific term did he use for the act of adopting a preordained meaning system like religion or nationalism?

Philosophical Suicide.

In Sartre's philosophy, what are the two sides of the human condition that are in constant tension, one representing our unchangeable circumstances and the other representing our freedom?

Facticity (our embodiment, genes, birthplace, etc.) and Transcendence (our radical freedom to make choices and recreate ourselves).

According to Simone de Beauvoir's The Ethics of Ambiguity, what is "the serious man"?

A person who deals with ambiguity by fully and uncritically identifying with a prefabricated role or identity (e.g., a political party, a religion), managing the lack of inherent meaning by diving unquestioningly into a prescribed system.

What was Sartre's ethical solution to the problem that radical freedom could lead to nihilism, as illustrated by the dilemma of his student?

When we choose for ourselves, we must act as though we are choosing for all of humanity. Every action legislates a universal value, thus making us profoundly responsible.

How did Camus and Sartre's views on political violence differ, leading to the end of their friendship?

Sartre endorsed revolutionary violence as a necessary means to achieve an ideal state (e.g., communism), viewing it as a path to absolute freedom and justice. Camus was fully against violence, believing that absolute freedom and absolute justice were incompatible ideals.

A person who feels that nothing in life is worth engaging with, closing themselves off from all possibilities because they find freedom overwhelming, would be what type of person according to Simone de Beauvoir?

The Sub Man.

The sense of dread and anxiety that emerges when the meaningful order of the world is stripped away, making things seem weird or absurd, is what Sartre termed .

Nausea.

Ernest Becker: The Denial of Death

Becker reinterpreted Freud's Oedipus complex. What is the central motivation in Becker's version that replaces Freud's focus on libidinal impulses?

The need to gain feelings of worth and self-esteem. The child conforms to parental demands not due to sexual conflict, but to secure a sense of value, which later transfers to conforming to cultural standards.

What term did Becker use for the culturally derived identity that is constructed from protective beliefs to shield us from the anxiety of our mortality?

Character (or character armor/shield).

Becker referred to our "character" as a necessary but illusory psychological construct that allows us to deny our mortality. What two-word term did he use for this concept?

The Vital Lie.

What is the central paradox of the human condition that Becker termed "individuality-within-finitude"?

The paradox of being a self-aware, symbolic consciousness that seems to stand out from nature, while simultaneously being confined to a mortal, animal body that is doomed to decay and die (i.e., being "gods with anuses").

Becker describes two opposing existential drives in humans: the motive to become a special individual and the motive to feel securely embedded in a larger culture. What are these called?

The Twin Ontological Motives.

The human body, with its messy, animalistic functions (bleeding, defecating, decaying), serves as a constant reminder of our mortality. What term did Becker use for this aspect of our existence?

Creatureliness.

When a group channels all of their existential fears and anxieties into a single person, group, or ideology, labeling it as the source of all problems, what process, according to Becker, is occurring?

The Fetishization of Evil.

Becker outlined four primary forms of worldview defense. List them.

Derogation, Assimilation, Accommodation, and Annihilation.

A politician dismisses the citizens of a rival nation as "barbaric" and "uncivilized." According to Becker, which specific form of worldview defense is being used?

Derogation.

Becker defines evil not as a metaphysical force, but as something that arises from a specific human motivation. What is it?

Evil paradoxically results from human attempts to eliminate evil. We perceive that which threatens our vitality or symbolic self as evil, and in our attempts to destroy it, we become a source of evil ourselves.

According to Becker, what is the primary, universal function of self-esteem?

It serves to reinforce the character shield that buffers the dread of existence (or buffers death anxiety).

What kind of immortality is a person seeking when they strive to be remembered for their great novel, their contributions to science, or by having their name on a building?

Symbolic Immortality.

Terror Management Theory (TMT)

What are the three critical, testable hypotheses of Terror Management Theory?

1. The Mortality Salience (MS) Hypothesis
2. The Death Thought Accessibility (DTA) Hypothesis
3. The Anxiety Buffer Hypothesis

According to TMT's Dual-Process Model, what is the immediate, conscious, threat-focused set of defenses people use right after an explicit mortality reminder?

Proximal Defenses (e.g., suppression of death thoughts, rationalizing away the threat).

In the classic TMT study by Rosenblatt et al. (1989), municipal court judges who were reminded of their mortality set a significantly higher bail for an alleged prostitute ($455 vs $50). This is an example of which distal defense?

Worldview Defense.

Following a mortality salience induction and a brief delay, a person may engage in efforts to uphold and maintain belief in their cultural worldview and gain self-esteem. What are these defenses called in the dual-process model?

Distal Defenses.

The finding that threats to one's worldview (e.g., reading an essay criticizing one's country) lead to an increase in the accessibility of death-related thoughts supports which specific TMT hypothesis?

The Death Thought Accessibility (DTA) Hypothesis.

The finding that boosting a person's self-esteem (e.g., via positive personality feedback) eliminates the typical worldview defense effects following mortality salience supports which specific TMT hypothesis?

The Anxiety Buffer Hypothesis.

The Terror Management Health Model (TMHM) distinguishes between two types of responses to death reminders. Immediately after MS, people report increased intentions for healthy behaviors. After a delay, however, health behaviors depend on something else. What is it?

Whether the behavior is relevant to one's source of self-esteem. (e.g., people whose self-esteem is contingent on appearance will only show increased exercise intentions after a delay).

According to the TMHM, why might a smoker whose self-image is tied to being a "cool smoker" report more positive attitudes toward smoking after seeing a warning that says "Smokers die earlier"?

It is a distal, self-esteem based defense. The death reminder threatens them, and after a delay, they bolster the aspect of their identity that provides self-esteem (smoking), even though it is health-defeating.

In the McGregor et al. (1998) study, participants who were reminded of death gave more hot sauce to another person who had written a worldview-threatening essay. This demonstrates MS leading to what specific behavior?

Aggression (as a form of worldview defense).

Why is a delay or distraction a crucial component of most mortality salience experiments?

To allow the initial, conscious proximal defenses to subside and for unconscious death thoughts to increase, which then triggers the distal defenses that are typically being measured.

A person reminded of their mortality might subsequently show a greater desire for fame or to have a star named after them. This is an attempt to achieve what?

Symbolic Immortality.

According to TMT research, after a mortality salience induction, why would a woman be less likely to perform a breast self-exam?

Because the physical, bodily nature of the exam is a reminder of her creatureliness and mortality, which she is motivated to avoid when death thoughts are active.

Studies show that after MS, people find the physical, creaturely aspects of sex less appealing, but the romantic, symbolic aspects more appealing. This is explained by the idea that the raw physical act of sex is a reminder of our .

Animality or Mortality.

The idea that we take all of our overwhelming existential fears and channel them into a smaller, more manageable target (like a political enemy) which we then seek to destroy is known as the _.

Fetishization of Evil.

Alternative & Integrative Theories

According to Sociometer Theory, what is the ultimate existential threat posed by death?

Not death itself, but the end of all social connections and belongingness.

The Meaning Maintenance Model (MMM) proposes that the core human motive is to maintain a sense of meaning, defined as expected connections and associations. From this perspective, death is not a unique threat, but merely an example of what?

An expectancy violation (or meaning violation).

According to Hart's (2019) critique of TMT, the theory's own internal logic is violated by the early findings that non-death threats (like thinking about failing an exam) did not produce MS effects. Why is this a violation?

Because according to the DTA and Anxiety-Buffer hypotheses, any threat to self-esteem or worldview (like failing an exam) should increase DTA and thus elicit terror management defenses.

The Tripartite Security System Model proposes that self-esteem and cultural worldviews are not the only anxiety buffers. What is the third, partially independent buffer it adds?

Close relationships (or attachment).

When a threat to one domain of psychological security (e.g., attachment) leads to a defensive bolstering of another domain (e.g., self-esteem), this compensatory process is known as what?

Fluid Compensation.

The Reactive Approach Motivation (RAM) model suggests that threats trigger anxious arousal and avoidance motivation via the , and defensive responses involve engaging alternative goals via the _.

Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS); Behavioral Approach System (BAS).

Which alternative theory posits that MS effects are not about death anxiety, but are evolved behaviors to embed ourselves within a protective group when our life is threatened?

Coalition Building (or coalitional psychology).

According to Paul Tillich's typology, the ultimate threat to one's cultural affirmation (worldview) is the Anxiety of Meaninglessness. What is the corresponding temporary, or proximal, threat?

The Anxiety of Emptiness (e.g., uncertainty about one's actions).

Tillich proposes three ultimate anxieties: Death, Meaninglessness, and Condemnation. The Anxiety of Condemnation is the ultimate threat to what?

Personal value affirmation (self-esteem/moral righteousness).

The argument that worldview defense following MS can be accounted for by appealing to a more general need to avoid uncertainty is the central claim of which model?

Uncertainty Management Model.

Attachment Theory

According to John Bowlby, an attachment figure serves two primary functions. What are they?

1. A Safe Haven to return to for comfort and safety when distressed.
2. A Secure Base from which to explore the world.

What term is used for the cognitive schemas of self and others that are formed through early caregiving experiences and guide our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in subsequent relationships?

Internal Working Models (IWMs).

A person who is uncomfortable with intimacy, values self-reliance, and tends to suppress emotions likely has which attachment style, characterized by high avoidance and low anxiety?

Avoidant (or Dismissing-Avoidant).

A person who craves intimacy but worries their partner doesn't love them and is often anxious about the relationship likely has which attachment style, characterized by low avoidance and high anxiety?

Anxious (or Anxious-Preoccupied).

In the Religion-as-Attachment model, the pathway where insecure individuals turn to God as a replacement for unavailable human attachment figures is known as the pathway.

Compensation pathway.

In the Religion-as-Attachment model, the pathway where securely attached individuals tend to adopt the religious beliefs of their caregivers and form a secure relationship with God is the pathway.

Correspondence pathway.

The Tripartite Security System model found that after an attachment threat, anxiously attached individuals were more likely to engage in , whereas avoidant individuals were more likely to engage in .

Worldview defense; self-enhancement.

According to Becker's synthesis of attachment theory, why do people eventually turn from their parents to culture and God for existential protection?

Because as children develop, they realize their attachment figures (parents) are just as fallible, vulnerable, and mortal as they are.

What is the term for an individual who develops a secure attachment style in adulthood despite having an insecure upbringing, often through a corrective relationship or deep reflection?

Earned-Secure.

An individual who both craves and fears intimacy, is distrustful of others, and may show symptoms of dissociation likely has which attachment style, often resulting from a frightening or unpredictable caregiver?

Disorganized (or Fearful-Avoidant).

Insecure defensive reactions to distress that occur when proximity seeking yields inconsistent comfort, such as minimizing attachment needs, are referred to as what?

Secondary attachment strategies.

Evolution of Denial & Other Concepts

The Mind Over Reality Transition (MORT) theory proposes that human intelligence did not evolve gradually, but emerged in a singular phase. What two cognitive capacities does it argue evolved simultaneously?

Full Theory of Mind (ToM) and Reality Denial.

According to MORT, why haven't other intelligent species (like chimps or dolphins) evolved human-level intelligence and Theory of Mind?

Because achieving full ToM would trigger a psychological evolutionary barrier: the accompanying crippling awareness of personal mortality would reduce reproductive fitness, acting as a dead end.

The cognitive capacity to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own is known as .

Theory of Mind (ToM).

According to Varki and Brower, our species' unique capacity for denial, while allowing our intelligence to evolve, has a dark side. What is the "dark conclusion" of their theory?

That the very thing which made our existence possible (reality denial) is also what will likely destroy us (e.g., via climate change denial, etc.).

What is the term for the cognitive developmental stage where a child can understand that another person holds a belief that the child knows to be untrue (e.g., the Sally-Anne test)?

Formal Theory of Mind (or recognizing a false belief).

According to MORT, behavioral traits like excessive risk-taking and optimism bias can be seen as evolutionary trade-offs. While they pose a danger to the self, what is their adaptive benefit?

They can increase mating opportunities through signaling success and confidence.

The philosophical position that life is inherently without meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value is known as .

Nihilism.

A person who has just been reminded of their mortality spends less time getting a foot massage. According to TMT, this is an avoidance of activities that remind them of their _.

Embodied nature (or creatureliness).

The tendency for people who feel their self-esteem is derived from their driving prowess to drive more recklessly after a mortality salience induction is an example of what process from the Terror Management Health Model?

A distal, self-esteem based health-defeating behavior.

The study where participants who reported a decline in religious faith showed increased interest in superhero films after an MS prime suggests that superhero narratives can serve as a substitute for what?

Cultural worldviews (or religious meaning systems).

Additional Flashcards (Deeper Dive & Nuance)

What is the key difference between literal immortality and symbolic immortality?

Literal immortality is the belief in a continued existence of the self after physical death (e.g., afterlife, heaven). Symbolic immortality is the sense of living on through a connection to something larger and more enduring than the self (e.g., one's nation, children, great works).

What is the TMT explanation for why reminders of our physical bodies (e.g., creatureliness) are existentially threatening?

Because the body is the physical, animalistic, and mortal part of ourselves. Reminders of the body are reminders that we are biological creatures destined to decay and die, which undermines the symbolic, transcendent self.

A student who believes their self-worth is tied to their intelligence receives negative feedback on an exam. According to the Anxiety-Buffer Hypothesis, what psychological state would be heightened?

Death Thought Accessibility (DTA). The threat to their self-esteem weakens their anxiety buffer, making unconscious thoughts of death more accessible.

In the study on "Fighting Death with Death," Christian participants read a worldview-threatening article about the "Muslimization of Nazareth." In the annihilation condition, they learned some Muslims died in a plane crash. What happened to DTA and worldview defense in this condition?

Both DTA and worldview defense (derogation of Muslims) were reduced back to baseline levels, suggesting that learning of the death of worldview violators served a defensive, anxiety-buffering function.

What is the term for the existential motive to be a unique individual who stands out from the masses?

Agape (in the context of Otto Rank's work, which influenced Becker) or, more generally, the motive for individuation or uniqueness.

Why would the Meaning Maintenance Model (MMM) predict that even a positive unexpected event (like winning the lottery) could lead to worldview defense?

Because according to MMM, any expectancy violation, positive or negative, disrupts one's meaning framework, triggering a compensatory need to affirm an unrelated meaning structure (like one's cultural values).

What is the primary difference between a primary attachment strategy and a secondary attachment strategy?

A primary strategy is the default mode of seeking proximity and comfort from an attachment figure when distressed. A secondary strategy is a defensive reaction (like avoidance or hyper-activation) that develops when the primary strategy consistently fails to produce comfort.

Research by Schimel, Hayes, et al. (2007) threatened Canadians' national identity and found an increase in DTA. What does this demonstrate?

It demonstrates that a threat to a cultural worldview is sufficient to increase death-thought accessibility, supporting the DTA hypothesis.

The idea that we are fundamentally alone, yet yearn for contact with others, represents which of Irvin Yalom's four "givens of existence"?

Isolation.

What are Irvin Yalom's "Four Givens of Existence"?

Death, Freedom, Isolation, and Meaninglessness.

The course syllabus mentions "Experimental Existential Psychology (XXP)." What distinguishes this approach from traditional existential philosophy or therapy?

XXP uses the scientific method (i.e., controlled experiments) to test hypotheses derived from existential theories about how humans manage concerns like death, freedom, meaning, and isolation.

According to the provided lecture slides, what are two key determinants of whether proximal defenses against a health threat will be constructive versus destructive?

1. Self-esteem (high S-E helps people face threats head-on). 2. Optimism (optimists are more likely to seek solutions).

A person high in neuroticism is found to react more intensely to reminders of creatureliness. How does Becker's theory explain this?

Becker would argue that people high in neuroticism are those who have failed to fully convince themselves of their cultural fictions (their "vital lie"). Their character armor is weaker, so they are less buffered from the raw anxiety of their existential predicament.

In the Roberts et al. (2002) study, a female confederate "accidentally" dropped either a hairclip or a tampon. What was the finding?

When she dropped the tampon (a reminder of creatureliness), participants rated her as less competent and likable, and sat farther away from her.

The Religion-as-Attachment model suggests God can fulfill 5 criteria of an attachment figure. Name three of them.

1. Safe Haven (source of comfort) 2. Secure Base (allows for exploration) 3. Proximity Seeking (desire to be close) 4. Separation Causes Anxiety 5. Loss Causes Grief.

According to the research on superheroes as a replacement worldview, which group of people responded to an MS prime with increased interest in superhero films?

People who reported a decline in religious faith.

What distinguishes Sartre's use of "anguish" from the everyday meaning of the word?

For Sartre, anguish is not just a negative feeling but the profound sense of responsibility that comes from recognizing our radical freedom—the awareness that when we choose for ourselves, we are choosing for all humankind.

In the context of attachment theory, what is defensive exclusion?

An ego defense where anxiety-provoking information related to attachment (e.g., thoughts of separation or rejection) is excluded from conscious awareness.

What is the core argument of the "romantic solution" as a response to losing religion?

That in a secularizing world ("God is dead"), people have replaced God with romantic partners (soulmates) as their primary attachment figure and source of existential meaning, leading to the "All-or-Nothing Marriage."

According to the course syllabus, what is the topic for the October 28th lecture?

The Self and Authenticity & Why do we like horror?

In the Goldenberg et al. (2001) "I Am Not an Animal!" study, under which condition did participants most strongly prefer the article claiming humans are special over the one claiming humans are merely animals?

In the Mortality Salience (MS) condition.

The concept that humans are born requiring a great deal of care for a long time in order to survive is called _.

Extreme infantilization.

According to the Sullivan et al. (2012) paper on Paul Tillich, all existential threat involves the experience of what?

Anxiety (defined as an existential awareness of nonbeing).

What is the fundamental difference between the anxiety of guilt and the anxiety of emptiness in Tillich's model?

The anxiety of guilt arises from a discrepancy between one's actions and internalized standards (a threat to personal value). The anxiety of emptiness arises from uncertainty about how to act and the validity of one's beliefs (a threat to cultural affirmation).

The desire to symbolically deny our animal nature by transforming our bodies into "cultural objects of beauty" is a defense against what Becker calls .

Creatureliness.

Why does Becker argue that "economics as expiation" was a central feature of primitive society?

Primitive man created and gave away surplus goods not for rational economic reasons, but as an offering to the gods to pay a cosmic debt and expiate the guilt of existence, thereby keeping the cycle of power in balance.

According to Becker's analysis of primitive economics, what was the primary motivation for creating a surplus beyond basic human needs?

To have something to give to the gods as an offering, which was an act of both heroism (creating power) and expiation (relieving guilt).

In the short story "Atrophy," the "jumps" Eris experiences, where her perception of reality flickers between a pleasant illusion and a horrifying truth, are a failure of what technological implant?

Her imps (implants), which are supposed to keep her "synchronized" to the pleasant, constructed reality.

What does the optometrist in "Atrophy" represent?

An indifferent, mechanical force of "reality" that does not distinguish between the "real images" and the constructed ones, imposing a harsh, unvarnished perception of the world on people.

In Becker's "Escape from Evil," what is the "logic of sacrifice"?

It is the central technique of primitive ritual, where the sacrificer performs in miniature the desired arrangement of nature, believing that by doing so exactly as the gods did, they gain control over creation and can drive away evil (sickness and death).

In "Human uniqueness and the denial of death," Ajit Varki proposes Brower's concept of a long-standing evolutionary barrier. What is this barrier?

The emergence of full self-awareness and inter-subjectivity would also bring a crippling awareness of mortality, which would curb activities necessary for survival and reproduction, thus acting as a dead-end evolutionary barrier.

According to the syllabus, the final exam is cumulative and worth what percentage of the final grade?

35%.