ap psych - unit 3 - development and learning

developmental psychology

concerned with chronological order of development and thematic issues in development across the lifespan

chronological order

studying human growth from conception through infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood

thematic issue

nature vs nurture, stability vs change, and continuity vs discontinuity

nature vs nurture

biological predispositions and heredity vs environment

continuity vs stages

the changes we experience occur gradually vs abruptly in stages

stability vs change

whether personality traits stay the same since birth vs change across the lifespan

longitudinal study

the same people studied over a long period of time

cross-sectional research

people of varying ages studied simultaneously

terotogens

potentially harmful agents that can produce birth defects or abnormalities. many teratogens cause damage only if they are present during a critical period in prenatal development

maternal illness

diseases carried through pregnancy in the mother can lead to transmitted diseases in the fetus

genetic mutations

extra chromosomes in the mother can lead to genetic disorders in the fetus like down syndrome

hormonal factors

low or high hormonal levels in the mother can lead to developmental delays in the fetus

environmental factors

maternal nutrition, stress levels, and exposure to pollutants in the mother can lead to developmental delays in the fetus

physical development in infancy and childhood happens generally in the same order, but…

the timing of the development can vary

fine motor skills

ability to use small muscles in hands, wrists, and fingers to coordinate movements for tasks like eating, writing, and getting dressed

gross motor skills

ability to use large muscles to crawl, walk, throw, etc

infant reflexes

infants possess reflexes that indicate on-track physical and psychological milestone development

reflex

an innate, automatic response by the body that occurs when a stimulus in the environment is detected

rooting reflex

when the corner of a baby’s mouth is touched or stroked, the infant will turn their head and open their mouth

grasping reflex

babies will hold onto fingers if pressed on their palm, enough to sustain their entire weight

sucking reflex

causes the infant to suck on anything that touches its lips

eleanor gibson’s visual cliff experiment

research using the visual cliff apparatus demonstrates an early ability in infants to perceive depth and an innovative way to assess infant responses → evidence supported the hypothesis that depth perception is inherent, not a learned process

critical period

a narrow window when an experience is necessary for development, like imprinting

sensitive period

a time when learning is easiest but still possible later, like learning a language

imprinting

some non-human animals will imprint on the first object they encounter as a means of survival—this cannot be reversed and is innate

the main physical and psychological milestones that occur is adolescence are…

adolescent growth spurt and puberty, in which reproductive ability develops

adolescent growth spurt

a rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during early adolescence

puberty

a period of sexual maturation when the body becomes capable of reproduction

primary sex characteristics

necessary for reproduction, like menarche and spermarche

menarche

the first incidence of menstruation in a female

spermache

a man’s first ejaculation of semen

secondary sex characteristics

physical traits that distinguish sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction, like pubic hair and broader shoulders

adulthood spans most of the lifespan, and is characterized by a general leveling off and then a varying decline in reproductive ability like…

menopause, mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity

menopause

women’s menstrual cycle ends, signaling the end of reproductive capability

sex

either of the two major forms of individuals that occur in many species and that are distinguished respectively as female or male especially on the basis of their reproductive organs and structures

gender

a social construct that refers to the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex

gender schema

a mental framework that organizes a child’s understanding of gender

socialization is influenced by…

family, school/peers and media

assimilation

a continuous process where children integrate new information into their existing schemas, reinforcing and expanding their understanding of the world without fundamentally altering their schema

accommodation

a discontinuous process where new experiences challenge existing schemas, requiring children to modify or create new schemas altogether

piaget’s stages of cognitive development

proposes that children progress through four universal stages of cognitive development, each marked by increasingly sophisticated thinking skills

sensorimotor stage

from birth to 2 years old, experiencing the world through senses and motor actions, develops object permanence

object permanence

knowledge of the continued existence of objects even when they are not directly perceived

preoperational stage

from 2 to 7 years old, representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical thought, develops mental symbols, pretend play, egocentrism, irreversibility, and begins to develop theory of mind, cannot perform conservation and reversibility

mental symbols

children start to use mental symbols, like words and images, to represent objects, people, and experiences

pretend play

imaginative play becomes a big part of the child’s life

irreversibility

preoperational children have difficulty understanding that some actions can be undone

animism

tendency of young children to attribute human qualities or intentions to inanimate objects

egocentrism

difficulty of children to see perspectives other than their own

theory of mind

children start to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that may differ from their own

concrete operational

from 7 to 12 years old, understand the world in logical, realistic, and straightforward ways, but struggle to think systematically, develops conservation and reversibility

conservation

awareness of physical quantities remaining the same even if changes in shape or appearance

reversibility

ability to mentally reverse an action and understand things can return to their original state

formal operational

from 12 years old to beyond, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and hypothetically

piaget proposed that not all individuals develop…

formal operational thinking

lev vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

people can attain higher levels of cognitive development through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society such as adults and more expert peers

scaffolding

a teaching method in which a more knowledgeable person provides temporary support to help a learner accomplish a task just beyond their current ability, gradually removing the support as the learner becomes more competent

zone of proximal development

the gap between what a learner can accomplish alone and what they can achieve with guidance from more experienced people

crystallized intelligence

the accumulated knowledge and verbal skills a person has acquired over their lifetime, which tends to increase or remain stable with age

fluid intelligence

the ability to reason, solve novel problems, and think logically in new situations, independent of previously learned knowledge, which tends to wane (decrease)

dementia

a decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life, affecting memory, thinking, language, and reasoning, like Alzheimer’s disease

language

a shared (mutually agreed upon) system of arbitrary symbols (often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphemes, and semantics) that are rule-governed (via grammar and syntax) and generative to produce an infinity of ideas

phonemes

the smallest units of sound in a language

morphemes

the smallest unit of meaning in a language

semantics

the study of meaning - how words, phrases, and sentences are interpreted

grammar

the system of rules that governs sentence structure and word formation

syntax

set of rules for ordering words and phrases into sentences

generative

the human ability to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences using a finite set of rules

cooing stage

when babies produce repetitive vowel-like sounds such as “oooh” and “aaah”

babbling stage

meaningless, speech like sounds

holophrastic stage

expressing a complete thought with 1 word

telegraphic stage

expressing a complete thought with 2-3 words

over-extension

using a word too broadly

over-generalization (over-regularization)

regular grammatical patterns are applied to irregular verbs

all cultures also use nonverbal manual gestures (e.g., pointing) to…

communicate

ecological systems theory

explores how the social environment influences development

microsystem

the immediate environment where a person has direct interactions, such as with family, friends, and work, like a parent providing guidance for their child

mesosystem

the interactions between different microsystems like a parent and teacher meeting to discuss their child’s performance

exosystem

the larger social system that doesn’t directly involve the person but still affects them indirectly like a parent’s workplace

macrosystem

broader cultural and societal factors, such as economic conditions, cultural beliefs, and political systems, like growing up in a society that values education may motivate the child to study more

chronosystem

incorporates the dimension of time, highlighting how changes over time, like life transitions (e.g., starting school), historical events, or shifts in societal values, affect development, like experiencing parents’ divorce at 3 instead of 12 may have different effects on development

authoritarian parents

low warmth and high control

authoritative parents

high warmth and control

permissive parents

low control and high warmth

uninvolved parents

low control and low warmth

cultural differences make…

authoritarian parents succeed in some cultures, like east asian, while fail in others, like western

attachment

the emotional bond between an infant or child and its caregiver

temperament

the basic foundation of personality, usually assumed to be biologically determined and present early in life, including such characteristics as energy level, emotional responsiveness, demeanor, mood, and willingness to explore

secure attachment

child feels safe exploring because caregiver is responsive and reliable, cries when mom leaves but returns back to normal quickly when she comes back

avoidant attachment

child avoids closeness or emotional connection due to caregiver’s emotional unavailability or rejection, shows little distress when mom leaves and avoids them upon return

anxious attachment

child is anxious and uncertain because caregiver is inconsistent, extremely distressed when mom leaves and mixed reactions upon return

disorganized attachment

child shows confused or contradictory behavior due to abuse, neglect, or trauma, freezes, wanders, or approaches mom with fear

seperation anxiety

a normal stage of development where children experience intense distress or fear when separated from their primary caregiver or when confronted with unfamiliar people or environments

temperament is related to…

how children attach to caregivers

harlow and attachment in monkeys

infant monkeys preferred the cloth mother and spent the most time with it, especially when frightened →  attachment is not solely based on the fulfillment of basic needs, such as food, but also deeply rooted in the need for contact comfort, security, and emotional connection (comfort over food)

parallel play

children play side by side with similar toys but do not interact or cooperate with each other

imaginary audience

teens believe they’re the center of attention and others are constantly observing and judging them

personal fable

teens believe their experiences and feelings are special, unique and unlike anyone elses

social clock

a cultural timetable for when we should achieve milestones

relationships with other adults result in…

adults forming families or family-like relationships that should provide mutual support and care, childhood attachment styles can also affect how adults form attachments to other adults