BIOL-101-UNC Chapel Hill Exam 1

Hyperglycemia

High blood sugar levels- Type 1 and Type 2 diabeties

hypoclycemia

Low glucose levels

what is wrong in Type 1 diabeties

no insulin

what is wrong in type 2 diabeties

insuin receptor is defective

How is insulin made

DNA writes the instructions

Turns into MRNA

goes through the ribosomes and creates insulin protein

then protein insulin goes though a vesicle to the glogi apparatus

Once it goes though the golgi apparatus it goes though a secondary vesicle to the plasma membrane

Then goes though exocytosis

enter blood stream

What is the process of a normal person regulting blood glucose levels

1. Pancreatic beta cells create insulin

2. then insulin is then released into the blood stream

3. Insulin finds the insulin receptor and binds to it

4. Once it binds to the receptor it singles the glucose receptor to move to the cell membrane

4. the glucose receptor allows foe glucose to enter the cell

Glucose is stored in muscle and liver cells as

glycogen

Saturated fats

fats that are solid at room temperature and have no double bonds that from kinks in the tails

Unsaturated fats

fats that are liquid at room temperature that form double bonds that creates kinks in the tails.

DNA monomer

nucleotide

fat monomer

glycerol + fatty acid

carbohydrate monomer

gluocse or monoscharride

Proteins monomer

Amino acids (20 types)

nucleic acids monomer

nucelotides

Starch monomer

gluocose

fiber monomer

glucose

saturated fat monomer

glycerol+ saturated fatty acid

Unsatruated fat monomer

glycerol+ unsaturated fatty acid

Phospholipid monomer

Hydrohyilic head and + two fatty acids

Hyrdolysis

When covalent bonds are broken down by adding water and forming two monomers with a OH and HO monomer.

Dehydration reaction

When an OH and HO group of two monomers releases H20 and creates a Covalent bond with the free oxygen.

each covalent bond created by the dehydration reactions releases how much water?

One molecule of water per polymer

People that are lactose intolerant can't go though what process

hydrolysis because they can't break down lactase.

What glucose monomers are the basis of what polymers

Starch, glycogen, and cellulose ( all forms of glucose)

Hydrophobic

Water fearing

Hydrophilic

water loving

How are triglycerides (fat) moved around the body

Phospholipids from a ring around the triglyceride with there hydrophilic heads facing outwards and the hydrophobic tails inwards.

Phospholipids are amphiphilic why

because they have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

what are the three reactions that our body uses macromolecules from our food

Cellular respirtion- produces energy

energy storage-glycoenesis

Hydrolysis-builds macromolecules

cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

Amino acids have the same base structure but different what

r groups

polar molecule

molecule with an unequal distribution of charge, resulting in the molecule having a positive end and a negative end.

Able to dissolve in water( Hydrophilic)

non-polar molecule

molecule that shares electrons equally and does not have oppositely charged ends. Not able to dissolve in water Hydrophobic

What does the R goup of an amino acid structure determine

determines the shape.

Amino acid+ amino acid =

dipeptide aka "peptide bond"

What reaction is used when forming peptide bonds

dehydration synthesis

Variation of amino acids are called what

primary structure

How does primary structure and interact with tertiary structure

The location of certain amino acids in the primary structure dictates how the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures looks. This means that the R groups of affect how close the amino acids are.

What can a mutation of a R group affect

possible the shape but it depends on the mutation

Covalent bonds hold what structure together

primary structure ( this is also called a polypeptide)

What can break down covalent bonds

emzymes

Hydrogen bonds hold what structure together between the amino acid end of one amino acids and the carboxyl end of another amino acid

secondary structure

What is a carboxyl group?

a carbon double-bonded to both an oxygen and a hydroxyl group

what are the seconday strucutres called

alpha helix, and beta pleated sheets..

What can break down the secondary structure

heat and PH can break hydrogen bonds.

What is the tertiary structure held together by

Interactions between r groups.

This structure have hydrogen bonds, covalent bonds, and charged interactions

How is the teriary stucture formed

Formed when two alpha helix and beta sheets fold in on each other forming tertiary structure.

What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

interactions between different polypeptide chains in proteins composed of more than one polypeptide (subunit interaction)

What are quaternary structure held together by

r groups

How is quaternary structure formed?

they form when multiple tertiary structures interact through exposed R-groups

Hypertonic

Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution.

What do animal cells have that plant cells don't?

Nucleus, mitochondria

What do plant cells have that animal cells don't?

Cell wall

What do plant cells and animals cells both have

DNA, ribosomes, cell membrane, and cytoplasm

What molecules can freely move arcoss the plasma membrane?

non-polar molecules, EX oxygen and atrazine.

What cannot pass though membrane

polar molecules, EX glucose, soluble molecules.

simple diffusion

*follows concentration gradient from high to low

* movement of oxygen and carbon diozide down concentration gradient

*Movement of water down concentration gradient

facilitated diffusion

*follows concentration gradient from high to low

* requires transport protein

* movement of glucose down concentration gradient.

Active transport

requires ATP

Moves ions against concentration gradient

required transport protein

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

Exocytossis

using the surrounding membrane as a means to push material out through the cell membrane to the exterior of the cell.

receptor-mediated endocytosis

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.

Phagocytosis

White blood cells swallow up the bacteria in a hosts body

Osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

Hypertonic

more solute, less water

quinches in

Hypotonic

less solute, more water

Swells

Isotonic

when the concentration of two solutions is the same

process of osmosis

water moves to the side of higher solute concentration

Estrogen can affect gene expression differently because

there are different receptors during chemical signaling that create different outcomes

Lipid soluable nonpolar molecules chemical signaling

1. Hormone goes though plasma membrane binds to a receptor

2. Once attached to receptor it forms a hormone receptor complex

3.The hormone recetpor complex then goes into the nucleus, and binds to the DNA.

4. transcription occurs creating MRNA which creates protein

5. This will lead to gene activation, and the synthesis of a new protein

Estrogen dependent

a cancer that is dependent upon estrogen for growth has estrogen receptors

Estrogen independent

A cancer that is NOT dependent upon estrogen for growth. Does not have entrogen receptors

Only cells with with receptors for a specific hormone can respond to what

hormone signal

Water soluble proteins signaling

*Water soluble protein bind to receptor protein

*Then starts transduction pathway

*Then the cellular responses like moving protein into cytoplasm, or go into nucleus for gene regulation.

Process of Glucagon release ( fasting)

1. the body realizes there is a declining of blood glucose levels.

2. This then stimulates the alpha cells of the pancreas to release glucagon (a hormone) into the blood stream

3. The hormone then binds to glucagon receptors on liver cells which tells it do break up the stored glycogen.

4. it then released glucose into blood which increases blood glucose levels.

5. this stops alpha cells from releasing glucagon

what happens when you don't eat

low glucose levels

Process of Insulin release( high blood sugar)

1. The body realizes there is an increase in blood glucose levels

2. This then stimulates the beta cells to release insulin into the blood stream

3. The insulin then stimulates muscle and liver cells to take up glucose.

4. The muscle cells and liver cells store glucose as glycogen .

5. Once it has gone though this process glucose levels decrease and beta cells stop being stimulated.

How does insulin realease glucose

Insulin binds to an insulin receptor which sends a signal to a glucose receptor which moves to edge of the plasma membrane and releases glucose.

What do enzymes do?

Build and break matter by lowering activation energy

Enzymes ______ the energy of activation for a reaction to occur

lower

Substrates is another word for

reactants

How might a coenzyme help an enzyme reaction

it enhances reaction rates. They turn substrates into products they can be recycles and participate in multiple reactions

Amylase breaks down what?

carbohydrates

competitive inhibitors

Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.

it binds to an active site and blocks substrate from getting in. They are competing for the same spot on the enzyme.

Non-competitive inhibitor

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate. ( changes the shape of the active site)

To know if an inhibitor is competitive or non-competitive you need to know

where it binds to and if it's inhibitor is competitive or non-competitive.

substrate enzyme level phosphorylation process

An enzyme adds a phosphate from a molecule to adenosine diphosphate ( ADP)

Then the product is ( ATP) Adenosine triphosphate

What is denaturation?

a structural change in a protein that results in a loss of its biological properties

EX when temperature increases it denatures enzyme which cases an egg to turn into egg whites

Exergonic reaction

A chemical reaction that releases energy

endergonic reaction

Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.

ADP has ___ phosphate groups

two

ADP contains

adenine ( nitrogenous base) , ribose, 2 phosphate groups

What is the function of the mitochondria?

powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP, cellular respiration

What is the function of ribosomes

protein synthesis, make proteins

What is the function of the nucleus?

stores DNA, controls most of the cell's processes, contains the information needed to make proteins

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus

sorts and modifies proteins that have arrived from the rough ER

What is the function of the rough ER

transporting and exporting proteins synthesized at the ribosomes

What is the function of the vesicles

to transport molecules in, out, and around a cell

What is the function of the cell membrane?

to control what enters and leaves the cell

What is the function of cytoplasm

Where chemical reactions take place