Psychology/Sociology Questions

______________ is a psychological state in which a person stops trying to change their circumstances after repeatedly facing uncontrollable negative situations.

Learned helplessness

Even when opportunities to escape become available, a person with ________ may still fail to take action.

learned helplessness

The ________ is the genetically determined range of body fat and muscle mass that an individual tends to maintain.

set point

___________ refers to the discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self.

Incongruence

___________ occurs when the presence of an audience hinders performance.

Social inhibition

___________ describes how different aspects of a person's identity (race, ethnicity, gender, etc.) combine to create unique experiences of privilege or disadvantage.

Intersectionality

_______________ emphasizes self-concept, the relationship between the actual self and ideal self, and self-actualization.

Humanistic theory

According to the ____________ , psychological disorders result from the interaction of a predispositional genetic factor and environmental stressors.

diathesis-stress model

Overactive ___________ signaling is associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

dopamine

____________ and __________ are examples of positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Hallucinations, delusions

primarily reduce psychosis by blocking dopamine receptors.

Antipsychotic drugs

Reduced motivation, social withdrawal, and cognitive deficits are examples of of schizophrenia.

negative symptoms

is the ability to reflect on and regulate one's own mental processes.

Metacognition

is the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, and emotions.

Theory of mind

is considered a form of metacognition because it involves reasoning about others' mental states.

Theory of mind

refers to whether people attribute outcomes to internal or external factors.

Locus of control

People with an believe outcomes are mainly determined by their own actions.

internal locus of control

People with an believe outcomes are controlled by outside forces such as luck or fate.

external locus of control

According to , learning occurs through guidance from a more knowledgeable individual.

Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development

consists of social relationships and networks that provide resources and opportunities.

Social capital

consists of knowledge, education, skills, and cultural experiences that promote success.

Cultural capital

was based on hereditary land ownership and largely involved ascribed status.

Feudal society

is a social position assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life.

Ascribed status

proposes that crime occurs when individuals cannot achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means.

Strain theory

A compares different groups at a single point in time.

cross-sectional study

A measures the relationship between two or more variables without establishing causation.

correlational study

is the hierarchical organization of society based on wealth, power, race, and education.

Social stratification

is the understanding that another person can hold beliefs that differ from reality.

False belief

The is commonly used to assess theory of mind in children.

classic false-belief test

The states that facial muscle movements can influence emotional experience.

facial feedback effect

are cultural norms that determine how emotions should be expressed.

Display rules

is the process by which institutions reinforce existing social inequalities across generations.

Social reproduction

involves attempting to control how others perceive you.

:Impression management

is modifying one's behavior in response to the direct orders of an authority figure.

Obedience

occurs when the presence of others reduces an individual's sense of personal responsibility.

Diffusion of responsibility

Approximately of observations fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

68%

Approximately of observations fall within two standard deviations of the mean.

95%

Approximately of observations fall within three standard deviations of the mean.

99.7%

An is any stimulus that is painful, unpleasant, or undesirable.

aversive stimulus

A is a cue indicating whether a behavior will be reinforced or punished.

discriminative stimulus

occurs when innate animal behaviors interfere with learned behaviors during operant conditioning.

Instinctive drift

The predicts that population growth will eventually outpace available resources.

Malthusian theory

argues that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others.

Differential association theory

is a defense mechanism in which people attribute their own unacceptable thoughts or emotions to someone else.

Projection

Positive symptoms _____ abnormal behaviors, whereas negative symptoms _____ normal functions.

add, remove

involves relationships and networks, whereas cultural capital involves education, and skills

Social capital

studies compare {{c1::different groups at one point in time}}, whereas correlational studies measure {{c2::relationships between variables}}.

Cross-sectional

attributes outcomes to {{c1::one's own actions}}, whereas external locus of control attributes outcomes to {{c2::outside forces}}.

Internal locus of control

focuses on {{c1::thinking about one's own thinking}}, whereas theory of mind focuses on {{c2::understanding other people's mental states}}.

Metacognition

1901 - 1924

Greatest Generation

1925-1945

Silent Generation

1946-1964

Baby Boomers

1965-1980

Generation X

1981-1996

Generation Y/Millenials

1997-2012

Generation Z

2013-2024

Generation Alpha

An impairment in the voluntary motor and sensory function that is not due to a neurological or any other medically recognized disorder

Conversion Disorder

Components of Attitude

ABC Model

Component of attitude that deals with someone expressing their feelings and emotions towards another object, person/subject, and event

Affective Attitude

Components of attitude about how a person acts or behaves towards another subject

Behavioral Attitude

Components of attitude about what someone thinks or believes about another subject

Cognitive Attitude

Explains a person’s behavior by looking at their external, environmental factors

Situational Attributions

Explain’s a person’s behavior by looking at their internal characteristics, personality traits, motives, and abilities

Dispositional Attributes

Controls left side of body

Right Hemisphere

Controls the right side of body

Left Hemisphere

• Spatial Awareness

• Visual imagery

• Facial Recognition

• Artistic/musical abilities

• Emotional processing/nuances of tone and communication

Right Hemisphere

• Logical reasoning

• Analytical thinking

• Language processing

• Fact retrieval

• Processing specific details

Left Hemisphere

• Analytical

• Creative

• Practical

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

• derived from the symbolic interactionist perspective in sociology

• Calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval

• The social disapproval is associated with a behavior, identity, or other attribute that is considered deviant by others

Social Stigma

• Associated with the functionalist theoretical paradigm in sociology

• Describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak.

• Without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness and aimlessness.

• Periods of rapid social change are often associated with this

Anomie

• In line with the symbolic interactionist paradigm in sociology

• Suggests that the self-concept is more than just the product of self-reflection.

• Instead, the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions.

Looking-Glass Self

• Perspective on deviance that suggests labels get applied to certain groups or individuals regardless of specific behavior.

• Adolescents are often subject to stigmatizing labels, leading to perceptions that may not match behavior

• Calls attention to the power that stereotypes can have in determining how individuals are perceived

Labelling Theory

• Qualitative method for collecting data often used in the social and behavioral sciences.

• Data are collected through observations and interviews, which are then used to draw conclusions about how societies and individuals function.

Ethnographic Research

• Positive feelings that people draw together

• Key factors influencing these are

  • Proximity

  • Physical Attractiveness

  • Similarity

  • Self-disclosure (revealing fears, goals, and thoughts with another person)

  • Reciprocity

  • Mere exposure effect

Interpersonal Attraction

• A type of idealized memory where we recall information exactly the way it occurred, or reproduce it with high fidelity

• Very unusual because our recall memory of events is often flawed

Reproductive Memory

subjectively vivid, compelling memories of details associated with reception of news about emotionally arousing events

Flashbulb Memories

Is memory for tasks which must be completed in the future.

Prospective Memory

• is the ability to recall an image from memory with a high degree of accuracy

• Colloquially known as photographic memory

• Different from Reproductive Memory as that deals with recalling information as it was originally encoded

• This one deals with holding vividly highly accurate visual images in their mind for several minutes

Eidetic Memory

• Briefest state of memory

• Acts as a holding bin, automatically retaining exact, raw impressions of environmental stimuli (sights, sounds, and touches)

• Holds memory for a fraction of a second to a few seconds

Sensory Memory

• Component of sensory memory

• Brief storage of visual information

• Captures a quick snapshot

• Lasts only a quarter of a second

Iconic Memory

• Component of sensory memory

• Short-term storage of auditory information

• Holds sound-stimuli

• Like a spoken word or a ringing phone

• Holds information for up to three or four seconds so that the brain can process the meaning

Echoic Memory

• Component of sensory memory

• Brief retention of touch and physical sensation (e.g., feeling a tap on your shoulder)

• Lasting for a second or less

Haptic Memory

Acquisition of behavior based on observing others engaging in a behavior

Modeling

Complex behavior learned by reinforcing small, incremental steps (successive approximations) that get closer and closer to the final goal

Shaping

Extent that research findings can be applied to real world behaviors

Generazability

The process of turning abstract concepts or ideas into observable and measurable phenomena

Operationalization

The initial process of taking sensory information and converting it into a neural construct for storage

Encoding

The subsequent process of accessing and bringing that stored information into conscious awareness

Retrieval

• Characterized by pervasive worry for most of the day

• Not characterized by acute symptoms

Generalized anxiety disorder

• Recurrent panic attacks

• Includes pounding heart, shortness of breath, dizziness, chest pain, sweating

Panic Disorder

• Intensive anxiety of developing a physical health condition

• Not by experiencing physical symptoms

Illness Anxiety Disorder

• Experience psychological distress caused by the experience of physical symptoms

• Includes anxiety, panic, sadness, hopefulness, anger, irritability

Somatic Symptom Disorder

Sleep stage dominated by theta waves

NI Stage

• Experience hypnagonic hallucinations

• Tetris effect

• Hypnic jerks

N1 Stage

Hearing or seeing things that aren’t there

• Seeing flash of light

• Someone calling your name

• Doorbell

Hypnagonic hallucinations

If you play this before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep

• Been in a boat all day, you might still feel like you are on water even when on dry land

Tetris Effect

• Feeling of falling

• Muscle twitches you sometimes experience as you fall asleep

Hypnic Jerks

• Deeper stage of sleep

• Harder to awaken

• See more theta waves

• Sleep spindles and K-Complexes

N2 Stage

• Burst of rapid brain activity

• Believed that this will inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep

• In some parts of the brain, associated with ability to sleep through loud noises

Sleep Spindles

• Suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep

• Helps sleep-based memory consolidation

  • Some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories

• Even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping

K-Complexes