Psychology

What is the function of the cerebral cortex?

Responsible for higher-order cognitive functions such as thinking, reasoning, and decision-making.

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.

What role does the limbic system play in the brain?

Involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation.

What is the function of the amygdala?

Plays a crucial role in fear and emotional responses.

What is the role of the hippocampus?

Essential for forming new memories and spatial navigation.

What does the hypothalamus regulate?

Basic biological needs and drives such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual behavior.

What is the function of the brainstem?

Connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

What does the cerebellum coordinate?

Fine motor movements, balance, and posture.

What is the role of the basal ganglia?

Involved in motor control, learning, and decision-making.

What does the thalamus do?

Relays sensory and motor information between the brain and body.

What are neurons?

Specialized cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the nervous system.

What are the three main parts of a neuron?

Dendrites, cell body (soma), and axon.

What is the function of dendrites?

Receive incoming signals from other neurons.

What is the role of the axon?

Carries electrical signals away from the cell body.

What is myelin?

A fatty substance that surrounds neurons, insulating the axon and speeding up signal transmission.

What are the three main types of neurons?

Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

What do sensory neurons do?

Detect stimuli from the environment and send signals to the central nervous system.

What is the function of motor neurons?

Carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

What do interneurons connect?

Connect sensory and motor neurons and process information within the central nervous system.

How do neurons communicate with each other?

Through electrical signals (action potentials) and chemical signals (neurotransmitters).

What is an action potential?

An electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron, generated when the membrane potential reaches a certain threshold.

What is a synapse?

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

What are long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD)?

Processes that strengthen or weaken synaptic connections, respectively, thought to underlie learning and memory.

What are the two main parts of the nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

What does the central nervous system (CNS) consist of?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is the primary function of the brain?

To process information and generate responses, involved in higher-order cognitive functions, emotion, and behavior.

What role does the spinal cord play in the nervous system?

It relays sensory and motor information between the brain and the rest of the body.

What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

What does the somatic nervous system control?

Voluntary movements and receives sensory input from the environment.

What functions does the autonomic nervous system regulate?

Involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?

It activates the 'fight or flight' response during stress or emergencies.

What does the parasympathetic nervous system promote?

'Rest and digest' functions and helps maintain homeostasis.

What are hormones?

Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect target cells.

How do hormones influence behavior?

They play a crucial role in regulating behavior, mood, and various physiological processes.

What is the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis?

A key system that regulates the body's response to stress.

What hormone does the hypothalamus release to initiate the stress response?

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).

What is the role of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in the stress response?

It stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol.

What behavioral disorders can result from hormonal imbalances?

Depression, anxiety, and mood swings.

What is Alzheimer's disease characterized by?

Memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behavior and personality.

What are common symptoms of Parkinson's disease?

Tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with movement.

What neurotransmitter is linked to depression?

Reduced levels of serotonin and norepinephrine.

What is the dual-process theory of thinking?

It distinguishes between fast, automatic (System 1) and slow, deliberate (System 2) cognitive processes.

What is the zone of proximal development?

The difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with guidance from a more skilled individual.

What does George Miller's concept of chunking involve?

Grouping information into meaningful units to facilitate memory and processing.

What is the working memory model?

A model describing how information is temporarily held and manipulated in the mind, consisting of the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Memory retrieval is most effective when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.

What are mnemonic devices?

Techniques such as acronyms that help improve memory retention.

What is the capacity of short-term memory (STM)?

Around 7 ± 2 chunks of information.

What are the two types of long-term memory (LTM)?

Explicit (declarative) memory and implicit (non-declarative) memory.

What can cause forgetting?

Decay, interference, and lack of retrieval cues.

What is neurofeedback?

A technique that uses real-time monitoring of brain activity to help individuals learn to regulate their own brain function.

How has knowledge of the biological bases of behavior influenced treatment for mental illnesses?

It has led to the development of pharmacological treatments such as antidepressants and antipsychotics.

What are some mnemonic devices that aid in memory retention?

BIV for the colors of the rainbow, acrostics like 'Every Good Boy Does Fine' for musical notes, and the method of loci, which associates information with familiar locations.

What is the first step in problem-solving?

Identifying a problem.

What does decision-making involve?

Selecting a course of action from multiple alternatives.

What are algorithms in problem-solving?

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution to a problem, though they can be time-consuming.

What are heuristics?

Mental shortcuts or 'rules of thumb' that can lead to quick, but not always optimal, solutions.

What is insight in the context of problem-solving?

A sudden realization or understanding of a problem's solution, often occurring after an incubation period.

What is functional fixedness?

A cognitive bias that limits problem-solving by fixating on an object's typical use, hindering the ability to see alternative uses.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek out information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

What is anchoring bias?

When an individual relies too heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the 'anchor') when making decisions or estimates.

What is the framing effect?

How the presentation of information can influence decision-making, such as presenting a surgery's success rate as 90%.

What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

It suggests that language shapes thought and perception, leading to different ways of thinking in different languages.

What is linguistic determinism?

The strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, stating that language determines thought.

What is linguistic relativity?

The weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, suggesting that language influences but does not determine thought.

Who proposed the idea of universal grammar?

Noam Chomsky proposed that all human languages share a common underlying structure.

What is the language acquisition device?

An innate predisposition that helps individuals acquire language through environmental input.

What cognitive benefits are associated with bilingualism?

Enhanced executive function and delayed onset of dementia.

What role does inner speech play in cognitive processes?

It aids in self-regulation, problem-solving, and memory.

How did Charles Spearman contribute to the understanding of intelligence?

He proposed the concept of general intelligence (g), suggesting a single factor underlies all cognitive abilities.

What is the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence?

Fluid intelligence is the ability to reason and solve novel problems, while crystallized intelligence involves applying acquired knowledge and skills.

What does Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences propose?

Intelligence is not a single ability but a set of distinct intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, and others.

What are the three aspects of intelligence in Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory?

Analytical (problem-solving), creative (generating novel ideas), and practical (adapting to real-world situations).

What is creativity?

The ability to generate novel and valuable ideas or products.

What is divergent thinking?

The ability to generate multiple, unique solutions to a problem, often associated with creativity.

What is convergent thinking?

The ability to identify the single best solution to a problem, important for creative problem-solving.

How can cognitive principles improve learning and memory?

By using mnemonic devices, spacing out study sessions, and engaging in active recall.

What is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)?

A psychotherapy form focusing on identifying and modifying maladaptive thought patterns and behaviors.

What does cognitive ergonomics focus on?

Designing work environments and tasks that optimize human cognitive performance and well-being.

What is the nature-nurture debate?

It explores the relative contributions of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) to human development.

What are critical periods in development?

Specific times when certain experiences or stimuli significantly impact future growth and development.

What is plasticity in the context of cognitive development?

The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experiences, especially during sensitive periods.

What are the stages of prenatal development?

Germinal (first two weeks), embryonic (weeks 3-8), and fetal (week 9 to birth).

What is Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

It proposes four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

What is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

The range of tasks a child can complete with guidance from a more skilled individual.

What does metacognition refer to?

The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes and strategies for learning.

What does attachment theory emphasize?

The importance of early caregiver-infant relationships for social and emotional development.

What are the characteristics of secure attachment?

Trust, comfort, and exploration in the presence of a caregiver.

What are the stages in Erikson's psychosocial theory?

Eight stages, each characterized by a specific conflict or challenge.

What does the central nervous system consist of?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is the primary function of the brain?

To process information and generate responses.

What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?

All the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.

What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system?

The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

What is the function of the somatic nervous system?

It controls voluntary movements and receives sensory input from the environment.

What does the autonomic nervous system regulate?

Involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

What is the sympathetic nervous system responsible for?

Activating the 'fight or flight' response during stress or emergencies.

What are hormones?

Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect target cells.

How do hormones influence behavior?

They regulate mood, behavior, and various physiological processes.

What is the role of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

It stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol.

What are some examples of hormones that affect behavior?

Cortisol (stress response), testosterone (aggression, sexual behavior), and oxytocin (social bonding, maternal behavior).