Research Methods

Explain the defining characteristics of laboratory experiments and discuss one strength of using them in psychological research.

Controlled setting, manipulation of IV, control of extraneous variables.

High internal validity due to control.

Differentiate between field and natural experiments, focusing on researcher control and ecological validity.

Field: IV manipulated by researcher, in natural setting.

Natural: IV is naturally occurring, no manipulation.

Outline the main limitation of quasi-experimental designs in terms of causal inferences.

Lack of random allocation limits control over participant variables, reducing internal validity.

Describe the key features of naturalistic observation and its implications for external validity.

Behaviour studied in real-life settings without interference—high ecological validity, but low control.

Evaluate covert participant observation as a method for studying sensitive social behaviours.

Covert: reduces demand characteristics.

Participant: increases insight but risks bias and ethical concerns.

Explain the difference between time sampling and event sampling and outline one methodological implication of choosing each.

Time: regular intervals—may miss rare behaviours.

Event: records each occurrence—can be intensive and subjective.

Discuss two methodological issues with unstructured interviews in psychological research.

Subjectivity and variability reduce reliability; harder to analyse due to qualitative nature.

Explain how the format of questions (open vs closed) can impact the data collected in questionnaires.

Open: rich, qualitative data but difficult to analyse.

Closed: easy to quantify but may lack depth.

Define the experimental method in psychology.

A systematic approach where researchers manipulate an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Differentiate between laboratory and field experiments.

Laboratory experiments occur in controlled settings, allowing precise manipulation of variables, whereas field experiments take place in natural environments, enhancing ecological validity but reducing control over variables.

Explain the characteristics of natural experiments.

Natural experiments involve naturally occurring IVs, with researchers observing effects without manipulation, useful when ethical or practical constraints prevent controlled experimentation.

Describe quasi-experiments and provide an example.

Quasi-experiments involve IVs that cannot be randomly assigned, such as gender or age. For instance, comparing memory recall between different age groups without manipulating age.

Contrast naturalistic and controlled observations.

Naturalistic observations occur in real-world settings without interference, capturing authentic behaviors, while controlled observations take place in structured environments, allowing for variable control.

Define covert and overt observations.

Covert observations involve participants unaware of being observed, reducing demand characteristics, whereas overt observations involve informed participants, raising potential for altered behavior.

Differentiate between participant and non-participant observations.

In participant observations, the researcher actively engages with the group being studied, while in non-participant observations, the researcher remains detached, minimizing influence on the group.

Explain the use of questionnaires in psychological research.

Questionnaires are standardized sets of questions used to gather data on participants’ attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors, often employing both open and closed-ended questions.

Differentiate between structured and unstructured interviews.

Structured interviews follow a predetermined set of questions, ensuring consistency, while unstructured interviews are more flexible, allowing for in-depth exploration of topics.

Define correlation and its purpose in research

Correlation assesses the statistical relationship between two variables, indicating the strength and direction of their association without implying causation.

Distinguish between positive, negative, and zero correlations.

Positive correlation: both variables increase together; negative correlation: one variable increases as the other decreases; zero correlation: no discernible relationship between variables.

Describe the process of content analysis.

Content analysis involves coding qualitative data into categories to identify patterns or themes, allowing for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of textual or visual material.

Explain the purpose and methodology of case studies

Case studies provide an in-depth examination of an individual or group, utilizing various data collection methods to explore complex phenomena within real-life contexts.

Differentiate between aims and hypotheses in research

An aim outlines the general purpose of the study, while a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from the aim

Define directional and non-directional hypotheses

Directional hypotheses predict the specific direction of the effect (e.g., increase or decrease), whereas non-directional hypotheses predict an effect without specifying its direction.

List and describe various sampling techniques.

Random sampling: equal chance for all; systematic sampling: selecting every nth individual; stratified sampling: proportional representation of subgroups; opportunity sampling: selecting available individuals; volunteer sampling: participants self-select.

Explain the purpose of pilot studies.

Pilot studies are preliminary trials conducted to identify and rectify potential issues in the research design, ensuring the main study’s validity and reliability.

Compare different experimental designs

Repeated measures: same participants in all conditions; independent groups: different participants in each condition; matched pairs: participants matched on variables, then assigned to different conditions.

Define and differentiate types of variables

Independent variable (IV): manipulated factor; dependent variable (DV): measured outcome; extraneous variables: uncontrolled factors that may affect DV; confounding variables: extraneous variables that systematically affect DV.

Explain operationalization of variables

Operationalization involves defining variables in measurable terms to ensure clarity and replicability in research.

Describe methods to control extraneous variables.

Random allocation: assigning participants to conditions by chance; counterbalancing: varying the order of conditions; standardization: consistent procedures across participants.

List key ethical considerations in psychological research.

Informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, confidentiality, and debriefing are essential ethical guidelines to safeguard participants.

Define demand characteristics and investigator effects

Demand characteristics: participants alter behavior based on perceived study aims; investigator effects: researcher’s behavior influences participant responses.

Explain the role of peer review in scientific research

Peer review involves evaluation of research by experts to ensure validity, reliability, and academic integrity before publication.

Discuss the implications of psychological research on the economy.

Psychological research can inform policies and interventions that enhance productivity, reduce healthcare costs, and improve overall economic well-being.

A researcher wants to study the effect of age on memory recall. Explain why a quasi-experimental design would be appropriate.

Since age is a naturally occurring variable that cannot be manipulated or randomly assigned, a quasi-experimental design allows the researcher to compare memory recall across different age groups without altering the IV.

Describe the difference between event sampling and time sampling in observational studies.

Event sampling involves recording every occurrence of a specific behavior during the observation period, while time sampling involves recording behaviors at predetermined time intervals, regardless of what behaviors occur.

In a study observing playground interactions, why might a researcher choose time sampling over event sampling?

Time sampling can provide a representative snapshot of behaviors over time, reducing the risk of observer fatigue and allowing for manageable data collection in a dynamic setting like a playground.

Explain the difference between open and closed questions in questionnaires.

Open questions allow respondents to answer in their own words, providing qualitative data, while closed questions offer predefined response options, yielding quantitative data.

A psychologist is developing a questionnaire to assess anxiety levels. Why might they include both open and closed questions?

Including both types allows for quantifiable measures of anxiety through closed questions and deeper insights into personal experiences through open-ended responses, enriching the data collected.

Define a correlation coefficient and explain what it indicates

A correlation coefficient is a statistical measure ranging from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

A study finds a correlation coefficient of -0.85 between stress levels and sleep quality. Interpret this finding.

This strong negative correlation suggests that as stress levels increase, sleep quality tends to decrease significantly.

Outline the steps involved in conducting a content analysis.

Steps include: selecting the content to analyze, defining coding categories, coding the material, and analyzing the frequency or patterns of the categories identified.

A researcher analyzes social media posts to study public opinion on climate change. How would content analysis be applied here?

The researcher would collect relevant posts, develop coding categories (e.g., supportive, skeptical, neutral), code each post accordingly, and then analyze the frequency of each category to gauge public opinion trends.

Differentiate between directional and non-directional hypotheses.

A directional hypothesis predicts the specific direction of the relationship between variables (e.g., increase or decrease), while a non-directional hypothesis predicts a relationship exists but does not specify the direction

Given the hypothesis: “There will be a difference in test scores between students who study in the morning and those who study at night,” identify its type and justify your answer.

This is a non-directional hypothesis because it predicts a difference in test scores without specifying which group will perform bet

Describe stratified sampling and its advantage over random sampling.

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups (strata) based on shared characteristics and randomly sampling from each stratum proportionally. This ensures representation of key subgroups, enhancing generalizability.

A study aims to understand the study habits of university students across different faculties. How would stratified sampling be implemented?

The researcher would divide the student population into strata based on faculties (e.g., Science, Arts, Engineering) and randomly sample students from each faculty proportionally to their representation in the overall population.

Define confounding variables and explain their impact on research findings.

Confounding variables are extraneous variables that vary systematically with the independent variable, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions about the relationship between the IV and DV.

In a study examining the effect of noise levels on concentration, how might a confounding variable affect the results, and how can it be controlled?

If participants’ prior familiarity with the test material varies and is not controlled, it could confound the results. To control this, the researcher could ensure all participants have similar familiarity levels or randomly assign participants to conditions to distribute this variable evenl

Outline the principle of informed consent and its importance in psychological research.

Informed consent involves providing participants with comprehensive information about the study’s purpose, procedures, risks, and their rights, ensuring voluntary participation and ethical integrity.

A study involves mild deception to prevent demand characteristics. How should the researcher address ethical concerns related to informed consent?

The researcher should debrief participants thoroughly after the study, explaining the true nature of the research and the reasons for deception, and offer