062 - Radio Navigation

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33 Terms

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Terms

  • Phase/Phase Angle: fraction of one wavelength, expressed in degrees from 0-360˚.

  • Skip Distance: distance from transmitter, to the point on earth where the first Sky Wave can be received.

  • Skip Zone/Dead Space: distance between the end of the Ground Wave, and the end of the Skip Distance.

  • Polarization: Orientation of the plane of oscillation of the electrical component (E) of the electromagnetic wave.

    • "Sunglasses, Eyes"

  • Rho/Theta: Rho = Range, Theta = Track (bearing).

  • QDM = RB + MH.

  • Reversal Procedures: 45/180, or 80/260.

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Night Effect

  • Ionosphere: part of the sky, high (40-600 km), with electrically charged particles by the Sun.

    • During day, lower D/E layers will absorb lower (MF/HF) frequencies.

    • Higher frequencies get through, and get refracted (which causes "reflection") by higher layers.

    • At night, D dissappears, E weakens, and the lower frequencies will now also get reflected.

    • This changes the Phase & Polarisation of the received signal.

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ITU Classifications

  • XXX = MSI: Modulation, Signal, Information.

  • N0N: carrier without modulation, as used by NDBs.

    • A1A: carrier with keyed Morse code modulation:

      • BFO makes the carrier audible.

      • Keying = interrupting the Carrier Wave (on/off).

      • The bearing indicator is erratic when a NON/A1A station is identifying (due to the on/off!).

    • A2A: carrier with amplitude modulated Morse:

      • AM onto the CW.

      • NDB: use the "regular" ADF function to identify.

  • A3E: carrier with amplitude modulated Speech used for communication (VHF-COM).

    • Not used for NDBs!

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Wave Propagation

  • General: Higher frequencies will follow a straight line. Lower frequencies bend and refract more; will follow the Earth.

  • Ground Waves: surface waves that follow the curvature of the Earth, diffracted along the surface (VLF, LF, MF) (HF very small part).

  • Sky Waves: (>10 MHz = HF) waves originating from the Earth's surface that are refracted or reflected back to Earth from the ionosphere (at night also MF, LF - Esp. MF might cause fading with the Ground Wave).

    • Increase Altitude to capture better.

    • Ionospheric refraction index affects reception.

  • Space Wave: Line-of-sight EM waves (VHF, UHF, SHF, EHF).

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Wavebands

  • Very Little Men - Have Very Unusual - Sex Experiences.

    • VLF, LF, MF - HF, VHF, UHF - SHF, EHF.

  • Starts with a 3: 3 kHz, 3 Mhz, and 3 GHz.

  • Wavelength (lambda, in m) = 300 / frequency (MHz).

  • VHF-NAV (VOR) band, 108-117.95 MHz.

    • Shared VOR and ILS (LOC, odd), 108.0-111.975 MHz.

  • VHF Range (NM) = 1.23 x (√(H1) + √(H2)).

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Propagation Phenomena

  • Reflection: physical objects/surfaces will reflect back some energy.

    • VOR mountain effect (multipath).

  • Diffraction: lines of waves being interrupted by physical objects.

    • NDB mountain effect.

  • Refraction: wave bands when passing to another medium.

    • In the Ionospehere, refraction will cause the wave to bend back to Earth!

  • Absorption: through a medium, some energy will be lost.

    • NDBs suffer from terrain absorption.

  • Attenuation: gradual loss of signal strength over distance.

  • Antenna Shadowing: due to ACFT shielding.

  • Fading: interference of the Ground and Sky Wave.

  • Scalloping: signal bends as a result of reflections from buildings and terrain.

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Signal Errors

  • Quadrantal error (ACFTs metallic structure): NDB/ADF.

  • Scalloping: VOR. Signal bends as a result of reflections from buildings and terrain.

  • Night effect: ADF.

  • Thunderstorm: ADF.

  • Costal effect: NDB signals bends when crossing the shore line.

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Modulation & Antennas

Modulations

  • Pulse - Radar.

  • Phase - MLS & GPS.

  • Amplitude - VHF/HF Comms, ADF, VOR, ILS.

  • Frequency - Sound broadcasting. Doppler VOR.

  • Basically everything AM.

Antennas:

  • Slotted Plannar/Phased Array/Flat Plate: less sidelobes, same beam width.

  • Directional: Parabolic, Loop, Helical, Slotted Planar Array (Pilots Love Hotels and Sluts!)

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RMI & RBI

  • RMI shows QDM and QDR.

    • the Compass Card moves.

    • Gives Magnetic Bearings.

  • RBI shows RELATIVE BEARING.

    • QDM = MH + RB.

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CDI/HSI

  • CDI is always relative to the VOR.

    • CDI can be used with RNAV, will show deviation from programmed courseline.

  • The HSI will turn with your heading (keep correct image), thus Left/Right will not be relative to the CRS, but to the ACFT.

    • THE TO/FROM FLAG TURNS AS WELL!

  • Back-Course: CDI/OBI is always reverse sensing (because only the outside rose turns), HSI will sense correct with Front-Course (opposite) set.

    • Localizer ONLY, NO glide-path. Non-precision approach.

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Establishment

  • ILS & VOR: within half-scale.

  • NDB: within ±5° of the required bearing.

    • ADF also ±5° accuracy

  • VDF: ±2°.

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VOR

  • Radial = Phase difference between variable and reference signal.

  • TVOR = Terminal VOR (not Test!), shorter range, part of Approach and Departure structure, usually at airports.

    • Usually within 108-112 MHz band (112 = terminal ill).

    • Collocated with DME.

  • Full Scale = 10˚.

  • Theta (THrack).

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ILS

  • VHF 108.0-111.975 MHz, odd decimal.

  • Difference in Depth (DDP) between 90 and 150 Hz modulations. Left to Right.

  • Glide path:

    • On UHF. 300 m behind threshold, 120 m from centre line.

    • Nominal 3˚.

  • Localizer:

    • VHF, 300 m behind TORA.

  • ILS Guidance = half of DH.

  • ILS full-scale dots: LOC = 2.5˚, GS = 0.7˚.

  • Markers: all TRANSMIT at 75 MHz (VHF) carrier frequency.

    • Outer: 4-7 NM, 400 Hz tone, dashes, blue.

    • Middle: 0.5-0.8 NM, 1300 Hz tone, dots & dashes, amber.

    • Inner: threshold, 3000 Hz tone, dots, white.

  • Coverage Area = Critical + Sensitive. Any object within may cause Multipath. For LOC and GP.

    • Critical = Excluded during All ILS Ops. (I/II/III), Sensitive = All Controlled (forbidden when II/III).

    • “defined area around LOC/GP…”

  • Warning Flag: absence of carrier/modulation, modulation reduced to 0.

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ILS + GBAS Coverage Areas

  • GP: 8˚ & 10 NM (18 to glide in).

    • + angular coverage: BMW 135, 525, i8.

  • ILS Loc: 10˚ & 25 NM OR 35˚ & 17 NM.

    • 17 * 2 = 35, -10 = 25.

  • GBAS: 15 NM 35˚ / 20 NM 10˚.

    • 35 - 15 = 20.

    • Station range = ~20.

    • 1535, Luther Reformation.

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DME

  • UHF: 960-1215 MHz. Often paired with VOR. Rho (RHange).

  • Max 100 interrogations, strongest signals.

  • 50 micro-seconds delay (10-6).

    • c = 300.000 km/s.

  • Signal Lost: "Memory Mode" - DME range keeps changing at the same rate for 8-10s.

  • Interrogation (ACFT) is randomised in a Unique Rhythm, to distinguish for own reply.

  • Magic words: “Position Line” = ground distance.

    • Any other case it is SLANT RANGE!

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Collocated VOR/ILS/DME

  • Ident DME: 1 every 40 seconds. Higher pitched tone.

  • Ident VOR/ILS: 3 times per 40 seconds.

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NDB

  • LF-MF, 190-1750 KHz. Picked up by ADF.

  • Locator = lower powered NDB. 10-25 NM range.

  • 2x Range = 4x Power.

  • BFO for hearing the N0N A1A morse carrier wave (usually automatic).

    • 3 letters en-route, 2/1 letter terminal.

  • ADF for A2A.

  • Over Sea better range! Less ground absorption. 

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MLS

  • SHF (5.03-5.09 GHz), 200 channels.

  • Components: Azimuth (Front & Back), Elevation Guidance, DME/P (for 3D position: segmented/curved), Data-comms.

  • Time between To/From scans in Azimuth and Elevation determines ACFT postition.

  • 20 NM, 40˚. (420, MiLfS +/- 40).

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Primary Surveillance Radar

  • Max Range (km): 300.000 / (PRF x 2). Reduce PRF for more range.

  • Min Range (km): (300.000 * Pulse Length) / 2. (Your length is minimum).

  • Range NM: 4sqrt(Watt). Double range = 16x power.

  • Practical Range (en-route surveilance): 200-300 NM (PRF = 270).

  • Pulse Power = Peak Power.

  • Azimuth = Beam Width.

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Secondary Surveillance Radar

  • Transmits 1030 MHz, Receives 1090 MHz.

  • Spacing between P1 and P3 pulse determines Mode.

  • All Call (acquiring new): Short P4 = A/C, Long P4 = A/C/S.

  • P2 for Side Lobe Suppression (SLS).

  • Mode S = Selective Addressing (via P4).

    • S = P1, P3 and P4.

  • Mode A: code 0 to 7.

  • "IDENT" = SPI. “ALT” = A+C+S. “ON” = A only.

  • Mode S(mall): 25 ft, Mode C(entury): 100 ft.

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Airborne Weather Radar

  • SHF, 9.375 GHz (9375 MHz), 3 cm.

  • Can also scan the Ground to obtain relative (/magnetic) bearings.

    • Keyword: Mapping Mode, suitable echoes.

  • Pitch & Roll stabilised. Not Yaw.

  • Slotted Planar:

    • Conical (pencil) = for Far.

    • Cosecant (squared) = Close (~60 NM).

    • Weather = Conical, Ground = Cosecant/both.

  • Flat Plate:

    • Ground = Conical/Pencil.

  • Map: A Flat Pencil, A Slotted Cosecant.

  • Storm: tilt up for T/O, tilt down for Cruise. Decrease during Climb.

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GNSS

  • Over UHF.

    • L1: C/A (civilian) & P-codes (military).

    • L2: only P-codes.

    • Combining eliminates Ionospheric.

  • Total position error = UERE x GDOP.

    • Greatest Errors: Ionospheric Delays. After that: GDoP.

  • NAVSTAR: 24 sats., 6 orbits, 20.180 km.

    • Control: master control station, ground antenna, monitoring station.

    • Nav-message: sat. clock correction, UTC, ionospheric model, health. 

  • GLONASS: 24, 3, 19.099 km.

  • Galileo: 30, 3, 23.222 km.

    • 2 independent, non-identical clocks, not synchronised. 

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GNSS Augmentation (SBAS & GBAS)

  • Both use ground stations.

    • SBAS transmits to a geostationary satellite via UHF.

    • GBAS transmits to the ACFT directly, via VHF-Datalink.

  • Corrects for any of the GPS errors. Not for ACFT receiver errors!

  • GBAS enables GLS = PA approach.

  • SBAS enables LPV = NPA.

    • New: SBAS LPV CAT 1 = PA.

  • GBAS needs at least 4 satellites. SBAS up to 4.

  • SBAS: 2 elements: ground + satellites. 3 segments: ground, space, user.

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Airborne-based Augmentation System

  • ABAS = AAIM + RAIM.

  • A
AIM = Aircraft Autonomous: GNSS integrity, based on other (redundant) internal systems (IRS, Barometer).

  • RAIM: purely Satellite based, using an extra satellite to check the working of the usual 4 required (for 3D).

    • 5 for Fault Detection, 6 for Exclusion.

    • May use a approved barometer.

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PBN

PBN = RNP & RNAV

  • RNAV & conventional = Sensor Specific (raw data), RNP = not (computed).

  • RNP APCH, 3 ways, 3 minima:

    • LNAV: just Lateral, 2D.

    • LNAV/VNAV: with vertical = 3D. Lower minima.

      • Baro-VNAV: has temperature limits, or temperature correction during the FAS.

        • Pilots apply corrections on almost all altitudes. Automatic System on FAS only!

      • or SBAS (is backwards capable).

    • LPV: Vertical with SBAS, 3D. Must have FAS datablock. Close to CAT 1 minima (LPV minima).

    • Law: PBN = only certain specification require approval, RNP = Operator dependent.

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FRT/RF/Turns

  • You can FRT in cruise, but not during approach.

  • FRT - Fixed Radius Turn: either 22.5 (>FL195) or 15 NM radius.

  • RF - Radius to Fix: a continuous curve between two waypoints.

    • Curved Terminal/Approach section, defined by Fix, Radius and Arc-length.

  • Fly-by/Over: only Fly-by allowed in RNP tracks.

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PBN 2

  • Application (SID/STAR), Infrastructure (GNSS), Specification (RNAV/RNP).

  • Availability: Percentage of time when available for use.

  • Accuracy: True Position.

  • Integrity: Trust we can hold in a system.

  • Continuity: Working without interruptions.

  • Functionality: Required functions.

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PBN Specifications

  • Number = the lateral navigation accuracy in NM (on both sides), which is expected to be achieved >95% of the flight time.

  • RNAV 10 = RNP 10.

  • NAT HLA = Oceanic. RNAV 10 (RNP 10) and RNP 4. Sometimes RNP 2.

  • RNAV & RNP 1, 2:

    • Manual Waypoint insertion/creation NOT permitted.

    • Route modification on ATC only.

  • RNAV 5: manual Waypoint insertion IS permittable.

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PBN Errors

PBN Errors

  • TSE is the Actual Total Error, EPE/ANP (Airbus/Boeing) is the Estimated Total Error.

    • PDE = Path Definition Error, considered 0.

    • NSE = Navigation System Error.

    • FTE = Flight Technical Error (Crew or A/P ability to follow path).

  • FTE and NSE can be monitored by the ACFT

  • PDE cannot be monitored, as it is a error of the data itself.

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PBN Specifications, Advanced

  • Advanced-RNP: RNAV521 RNP21 APCH.

  • RNP 1 & 0.3: helicopter.

  • RNP 2 is Continental and Oceanic.

  • RNAV & RNP 1: for terminal phases (SIDs, STARs)

  • RNAV 2: C-A-D. (cont., arr., dept.).

  • RNAV 10 (RNP 10), RNP 4 & 2: Oceanic.

  • RNAV 5: arrival, enroute continental (>30 NM, above MSA).

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PBN Specs. short

RNAV 10 - oceanic
RNAV 5 - enroute/arrival
RNAV 2 - enroute/arrival/departure
RNAV 1 - arrival/departure
--
RNP4 - oceanic
RNP2 -enroute
RNP1 - arrival departure (is the same as RNAV1)

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<p>RNAV &amp; RNP picture</p><p></p>

RNAV & RNP picture

Arrival, Initial, Intermediate, Final (no), Departure, Continental, Oceanic.

RNAV: 125, 1, 1, - , 12, 25, 10.

RNP: 1, 1, 1, -, 1, 2, 24.

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Type A & B

  • Type A: >250 DH.

  • Type B(elow): <250 DH.

    • CAT I: >200, Vis. >800 m/RVR >550 m.

    • CAT II: >100, RVR >300 m.

    • CAT III: <100/0, RVR<300/0 m.

  • FAF = NPA, FAP = PA.

    • Point in space is more accurate.