Psychology: Cognitive Processes, Language, and Decision-Making Concepts

Cognition

mental activities and processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating information.

Metacognition

is cognition about cognition, or thinking about our thinking.

Psychological processes

attention, emotion, consciousness, perception learning and etc.

Concept

is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, states, ideas, and/or people.

Prototype

mental images of the best example of a concept.

Cognitive strategies

assist our problem solving.

Trial and Error

trying various possible solutions, and if that fails, trying others.

Heuristics

is a short cut, step-saving strategy or principle which generates a solution quickly (but possibly in error).

Insight

sudden realization, a leap forward in thinking, that leads to a solution.

Peter Wason Selection Test

sequence of numbers where given (2,4,6), asked his student to guess his rule and ask him whether other certain numbers fit the rule.

Confirmation bias

tendency to search for info which confirms our current theory, disregarding contradictory evidence.

Natural tendency

if I'm right, the fact "C" will confirm my theory.

Scientific practice

If I'm right then fact "D" will disprove or at least disconfirm my theory.

Fixation

the tendency to come to a fresh perspective, an inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

Mental set

The tendency to approach problems using procedures and methods that have worked previously.

Intuition

The quick acting automatic source of ideas we use instead of careful reasoning.

Availability heuristic

Estimate the likelihood of an event based on how much it stands out in our mind, that is how much it's available as a mental reference.

Overconfidence

Judgments refer to our tendency to be more confident than correct.

Overconfidence Error

Overconfidence allows quick decisions, feeling certainty reduces stress and anxiety, and overconfident people may gain social power.

Preventing Overconfidence Error

When you plan to state an opinion, prediction, or judgment, say 'I think' rather than 'I know.' Be open to feedback and to correction, ask for other opinions, predictions, and factors you have not considered, and keep track of when you were wrong.

Belief perseverance

Holding on to your ideas over time, and actively rejecting information that contradicts your ideas.

Belief Perseverance Error

'My mind is made up do not confuse me with the facts.' We interpret information in a way that fits our beliefs.

Framing

The focus, emphasis, or perspective that affects our judgments and decisions.

Algorithm

A step by step strategy that guarantees a solution but requires time and effort.

Creativity

The ability to produce original and valuable ideas.

Wording effect

Wording a question or statement so that it evokes a desired response; can influence others' decisions and produce a misleading result.

Convergent thinking

A left-brain activity involving zeroing in on a single correct answer.

Divergent thinking

The ability to generate new ideas, new actions, and multiple options and answers.

Creative environment

Having support, feedback, etc. and time and space to think.

Venturesome personality

Tending to seek out new experiences despite risk, ambiguity, and obstacles.

Intrinsic motivation

Enjoying the pursuit of interest and challenge, without needing external direction or rewards.

Expertise

Possessing a well-developed base of knowledge.

Imaginative thinking

Having the ability to see new perspectives, combinations, and connections.

Language

Consists of the use of symbols to represent, transmit and store meaning/information.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound (vowels and consonants).

Morphemes

The units of meaning, i.e., words and meaningful parts of words such as suffixes, prefixes.

Grammar

Rules for using words, including semantics, definitions, connotations, and syntax (how the order of words makes meaning).

Receptive Language (0-4 months)

Associating sounds with facial movements, and recognizing when sounds are broken into words.

Productive language (4 months)

Babbling in multilingual sounds.

One-Word stage (12 months)

Understanding and beginning to say many nouns.

2-word, 'telegraphic' speech (18-24 months)

Adding verbs and making sentences but missing words (e.g., 'see bird!' 'Ree book? Go park!').

Full sentences (2+ years)

Speaking in full sentences and understanding complex sentences.

Nature (in language acquisition)

Inborn genetic talent for acquiring language though no particular kind of language is in the genes.

Nurture (in language acquisition)

Statistical pattern recognition talent; infants quickly recognize patterns in syllable frequency and sequence.

Aphasia

An impairment in the ability to produce or understand language, usually caused by damage to the brain.

Broca's Area

Part of the brain that, if damaged, might impair your ability to speak words.

Wernicke's Area

Part of the brain that, if damaged, might impair your ability to understand language.

Linguistic determinism

The idea that our specific language determines how we think.