Chapter 8: Memory FULL

Memory

The process by which we observe, store, and recall information

The Information-Processing Model

Encoding - the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored. Storage - the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved. Retrieval - reactivating and recalling information and producing it in a form similar to what was encoded.

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (location in space, time, frequency)

Encoding Failure

Information never enters long term memory system - attention is selective (we cannot attend to everything in our environment)

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units (phone numbers). Use Acronyms (HOMES - Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior) MES-MISC (Maintenance Rehearsal, Elaborative Rehearsal, Self Reference Effect, Meaningful, Imagery, Spacing, Chunking)

Sensory memory

The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. Iconic Memory - a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasts no more than a few tenths of a second, thought to be an exact representation of a scene. Echoic Memory - momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, lasts 3-4 seconds

Short Term Memory

Also known as working memory, limited in duration and capacity - thinking uses this type of memory, rarely go beyond 1 minute, most often 15-25 seconds. Magical number 7+ / -2, average person, free from distraction can hold about 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words.

Long Term Memory (explicit memory)

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (semantic - facts and general knowledge, ex. what’s a taquito?) Episodic (memory tied to your own person experiences, ex. did you enjoy the taquito)

Long Term Memory (implicit)

Implicit Memory - retention without conscious recollection (procedural memory - motor and cognitive skills, ex. riding a bike, tying shoes). Priming - activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus (ex. thinking about where you were and who you were with to remember a memory)

conceptual priming

when priming stimulus influences your flow of thoughts (saying “rabbit” influences you to say “hare” rather than “hair”)

perceptual priming

when a priming stimulus enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features (water picture during class)

Recall

the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness (ex: fill in the blank test) just think and there it is

recognition

the ability to identify perviously learned information. gets better with practice

relearning

amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information (the more you relearn the faster it is)

retrieval cues

reminders of information we could not otherwise recall.

priming

type of retrieval cue. memory works better in original context (setting)

mood congruent memory

recall experiences that are consistent with ones current mood (happy people remember happy thoughts)

state dependent memory

what is learned in one state can be more easily remembered when in same state. (If you study with caffeine, make sure to have some before the test)

Misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event (wording can influence how we remember. “smashed” seems worse than “hit”. This can influence the severity we remember)

memory construction

people fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions. Imagining events can create false memories

Can memories of abuse be repressed or constructed?

some adults do forget traumatic experiences

False memory syndrome

condition where persons identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience. Cannot tell real vs. fake memory. Can be induced by therapists

Mandela effect

shared and consistent false memory for specific icons. occurs to suggestibility, source misattribution, activation of associated information.

innocence project

hundreds of DNA exonerations (365). Eyewitness error occurs in 71% of cases

forgetting

inability to get information out of the memory system. can be forgetting as encoding failure. Or forgetting as retrieval failure (information is encoded into long term memory, but we can’t retrieve it)

motivated forgetting

repressed memories (traumatic events), decay theories, interference theories, stress

decay theory

memories fade away or decay gradually if unused. Not supported for long term memory

interference theories

memories interfering with memories. Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory. (retroactive or proactive)

Retroactive interference

when a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information (can’t remember old)

Proactive interference

When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information (Can’t remember new info)

retrieval failure

Caused by high level of stress. People can’t remember their address following trauma. Ex: rats forget where platform in water maze is adter being shocked.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Maintenance Rehearsal

conscious repetition of information rehearsing information by relating new info to info already in long term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

rehearsing information by relating new info to info already in long term memory.

Meaningfulness and Self-Reference Effect

make information meaningful in some way. - Relating material to yourself.

spacing effect

(day 1, day 2 with studying strategy), distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice, overcomes the Serial Position Effect (tendency to recall best) - the last items on the list (recency effect) the first items in a list (primacy effect)