FRSC1030 Foundations in Forensic Science Chapter 1

Key Terms from chapter 1

Accreditation

Means that a laboratory operates per a professional standard and has proven that it can and does operate this way.

Adjudicated

Settled, resolved, usually with a plea deal

Adversarial system

The type of system in which lawyers work, where the goal is to win a favorable decision for one’s client through knowledge of the law

Bias

An unconscious prejudice in favor or against one side of a problem that can come from ideas, notions, beliefs, perspectives, etc.

Blank

A known clean sample of something; a control sample used to account for contamination and sources of error in an analytical test, also called a negative control

Blind sample

A sample assigned to an analyst by their supervisor to test, to ensure that the analyst’s work is acceptable.

Burden of proof

The responsibility to prove someone guilty beyond a reasonable doubt during a criminal trial

Certification

Proof that a scientist has completed a written test covering their discipline and that they participate in proficiency testing.

Chain of custody

A cradle-to-grave quality monitoring process created when evidence is collected. Every time the evidence changes hands, the person relinquishing the evidence and the person accepting it must sign the document. Whoever signed last is responsible for the safety and integrity of the evidence.

Civil law

The category of law that allows people to sue others for causing them harm. The plaintiff must prove the case by a preponderance of the evidence.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories

Contextual information

Information that gives context to a case, such as circumstances or setting, unrelated to the evidence itself, that could unintentionally influence an analyst

Criminal law

The category of law that deals with criminal charges, found in federal or provincial statutes. It involves the government as the body charging individuals or companies wiht criminal acts.

Detection limit

The lowest concentration or amount of substance a method or test can detect,

Defendant

The person being sued in a civil case,

Double-blind sample

A sample for which no one in the laboratory knows its contents, used to ensure not only the analyst’s work, but also the laboratory’s as a whole.

Falsifiability

The principle that a scientific claim must be disprovable through observation or experimentation

Felony

A more serious criminal charge

Figures of merit

Analytical criteria used to evaluate the performance of a method, including parameters such as sensitivity, selectivity, limit of detection, reproducibility, and more.

Inquisitorial system

A system in which the judge plays a more active role in an investigation, and is usually the person to decide what charges will be brought against someone. They direct the process to ascertain fasts that will dictate whether charges are filed.

Internal consistency

The degree to which multiple items, or pieces of evidence, all point towards the same general hypothesis. For a hypothesis to be valid, every finding must support it. 

Junk science

Untested or unproven theories presented as scientific fact, especially in a court of law. Examples include astrology, bitemark analysis, and handwriting analysis. Also known as pseudoscience.

Jurisdiction

A region or geographical area where a law enforcement or legal entity can exercise authority.

Knowns

Positive controls, samples to which a known amount of a substance has been purposely added to ensure that the method used is operating as expected.

Method validation

An evaluation of testing methods under many different conditions, which generates a list of figures of merit.

Misdemeanor

A less severe criminal charge

Negative control

Also called blanks, a sample in an experiment that is treated the same as the unknown samples, but is not expected to produce the same results, demonstrating a baseline or absence of the expected outcome.

Peer review

The process of evaluating scientific claims and data, by submitting said claim to other scientists in the same field to be reviewed and discussed, who then attempt to reproduce the results.

Plaintiff

The person or party that files a lawsuit or sues another person in a civil trial.

Plea bargain

An agreement in a criminal case where a defendant pleads guilty to a charge for a concession from the prosecutor, such as a reduced charge or a lighter sentence. 

Positive control

Also called a known, a sample to which a known amount of a substance has been purposely added to ensure that the method used is operating as expected.

Precedent

Decisions made by earlier courts in similar cases that affect courts now

Probable cause

Reasonable grounds for a warrant, to search, seize, or arrest someone or something. A legal standard requiring reasonable belief, supported by facts and circumstances, that a crime was committed or will be found in a particular place

Prosecution

The party that files criminal charges in a criminal trial

Prosecutorial bias

The tendency of a prosecutor to judge unfairly or unreasonably, influenced by non-relevant information or personal belief. In forensics, it can stem from personal loyalties from an analyst towards officers, and can lead to deviation from their professional duty.

Pseudoscience

Also known as junk science, untested or unproven theories presented as scientific fact, especially in a court of law. Examples include astrology, bitemark analysis, and handwriting analysis.

Qualitative analysis

The process of examining non-numerical data, such as appearance or odour to find identify the presence or absence of components in a sample.

Quality assurance / Quality control (QA/QC)

The process of establishing standards and procedures to systematically prevent defects and errors in processes. Examples of QA/QC samples include positive and negative controls, and blind samples.

Quality management

Elements designed to assure the utility, reliability, and trustworthyness of data. Includes policies, practices, and methods used in laboratories and by practitioners.

Quantitative analysis

The process of examining numerical data, such as purity, weight, and concentration, to identify a sample.

Reproducibility

One example of a figure of merit, the concept that data should be obtainable by anyone, and anyone who repeats the experiment should obtain comparable results.

Self-correction

A core principle of science, the process of advancing over time as new ideas, data, and observations are proposed, tested, reviewed, and accepted. 

Standard operating procedure (SOP)

The method of listing detail step-by-step instructions for executing a test, to ensure consistency and efficiency.

Standards

Documents made by organizations establishing guidelines for consistent measurement and scientific knowledge.

Trier of fact

The person or party, a judge or a jury, that decides how a testimony will be integrated into their decision in a court case, They decide how much weight to give an expert in court.