Unit 0 AP Psych Vocab

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to see events as having been predictable after they occur (the 'knew-it-all-along' effect).

Overconfidence

Excessive belief in one's own abilities or judgments.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preconceptions.

Evolutionary Perspective

A view that behavior is shaped by natural selection and evolutionary history.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A view emphasizing unconscious drives and early life experiences shaping behavior.

Biological Perspective

An approach focused on genetic, neural, hormonal, and bodily bases of behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach focusing on observable behavior and learning from the environment.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach emphasizing mental processes like memory, thinking, and problem-solving.

Social-Cultural Perspective

An approach highlighting the influence of social and cultural contexts on behavior.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach focusing on personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An integrated approach considering biological, psychological, and social factors.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Population

The entire group of individuals about whom the researcher wants to generalize.

Random Sample

A sample chosen by chance to represent the population.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven false by evidence.

Sample

A subset of the population used in a study.

Peer Review

Evaluation of research by experts before publication.

Operational Definition

A precise, measurable definition of a variable.

Convenience Sample

A nonrandom sample chosen for ease of access.

Replication

Repeating a study or experiment to verify results.

Reliability

Consistency of a measure or instrument.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population characteristics.

Experimental Methodology

Research design involving manipulation of variables to test causation.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

Non-Experimental Methodologies

Research methods that do not involve random assignment or manipulation.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to respond in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event.

Survey

Data collection method using questionnaires or interviews.

Quantitative Measurement

Measuring variables in numerical form.

Likert Scales

Rating scales (e.g., 1-5) used to measure attitudes or opinions.

Correlational Study

Study examining the relationship between variables without inferring causation.

Self-Report Bias

Distortions in responses due to memory, social desirability, or desire to please.

Qualitative Measurement

Non-numerical data collection like interviews, descriptions, and observations.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the independent variable.

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants do not know which group they are in to reduce bias.

Independent Variable

The variable deliberately changed or manipulated by the researcher.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know the group assignments.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable measured in the study.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous variable that could affect the results.

Placebo

An inert substance or treatment used as a control condition.

Control Group

Participants not exposed to the experimental manipulation, for comparison.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to conditions to equalize groups.

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to participants' expectations rather than the treatment.

Experimenter Bias

Researchers' expectations influencing the study or data interpretation.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables.

Positive vs Negative

Direction of a correlation: positive (both increase together) or negative (one increases as the other decreases).

Scatterplots

Graphs showing the relationship between two variables with data points.

Correlation Coefficients

A numerical index (r) describing the strength and direction of a linear relationship.

Third Variable Problem

A third variable causing both observed variables, creating a spurious correlation.

Illusory Correlation

Perceived relationship between two variables that does not exist or is weaker than believed.

Directionality Problem

Uncertainty about which variable influences the other in a correlation.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistics describing the center of a data distribution (mean, median, mode).

Normal Curve

Bell-shaped, symmetrical distribution known as the normal distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of numbers.

Skewed Distribution

Distribution with an asymmetrical tail toward one side.

Bimodal Distribution

Distribution with two distinct peaks.

Median

The middle value in an ordered data set.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest values.

Regression Toward the Mean

Extreme scores tend to move toward the average on retesting.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Measures of Variation

Statistics describing how data vary (range, variance, standard deviation).

Standard Deviation

A measure of how much scores deviate from the mean on average.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores falling at or below a given score.

Statistical Significance

Result unlikely due to chance, suggesting a real effect.

Generalizability

Extent to which findings apply to other populations and settings.

Effect Size

Magnitude of a relationship or difference, independent of sample size.

Institutional Review Board

Ethics committee that reviews research involving human participants.

Protection from Harm

Ethical principle to minimize physical and psychological risks.

Informed Consent

Participants' voluntary agreement to participate after being informed of procedures and risks.

Debriefing

Post-study explanation of purpose and procedures to participants.

Avoiding Deceit

Ethical guideline to minimize deception; use only when necessary and disclosed.

Informed Assent

Affirmative agreement by someone unable to give full consent (e.g., minors) to participate.

Research Confederates

People who are part of the study but pose as participants to manipulate variables.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants' data from disclosure.