HMS Focus Area 2

What is a pre excercise questionnaire?

A pre- exercise questionnaire is a self-reported screening tool used to assess an individual's health status before beginning physical activity, it aids fitness become applicable and enjoyable for participants. Designed to identify potential health risks, pre-existing conditions and injury history and lifestyle that may affect safe participation.

What is an example of a pre-excercise screening tool:

• Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q): used internationally to screen general fitness participants. 

• Australian Adult Pre-Exercise Screening System (APSSS): a more detailed screening process with three stages to assess health risk levels.

What is an excercise assessment?

Evaluates individual fitness levels, strengths and weaknesses

• Ensures a workout plan suits and individuals needs

• Boosts efficiency and prevents injury

• Enhances motivation and commitment

What is fitness testing?

• Individuals can focus their training on the areas that really need improvement. 

• Tracking progress over time with tests is extremely motivating. 

• Allows to tailor a program to an athlete's specific needs. Athletes should be periodically testing to see if their program is helping them improve or not. 

Example of a fitness test

Yo-yo test: Aerobic

Utilises the cardiovascular system to test how well the lungs can retrieve oxygen and carry it to our working muscles.

• Improving cardiovascular health improves recreational participation and everyday actions like walking or climbing stairs. 

Wingate Test: Anaerobic

• Involves pedalling an arm or leg cycle ergometer as fast as possible against a heavy resistance for 30 seconds. 

What is anaerobic training?

• involves repeated high-intensity efforts with short recovery periods, targeting energy systems that do not rely on oxygen. 

  • It improves speed, power, and lactic acid tolerance.

  • Increases LIP (Lactate Inflection Point)

  • Primarily engages the ATP-PC system (short bursts) and the anaerobic glycolysis system (longer bursts up to 60 seconds). 

Example of anerobic training

Basketball – fast break & defensive recovery drill

Structure:

• Sprint full-court (baseline to baseline)

• Perform 5 seconds of lateral defensive slides at the far end

• Sprint back to the starting baseline

• Rest 20-30 seconds, then repeat for 10 reps

High intensity interval training (HIIT)

involves short, high-intensity work followed by lower-intensity recovery periods.

It is shorter in duration than many of the more traditional aerobic training methods.

Offers an effective training alternative to people with limited time

A thorough warm-up is crucial before commencing the main phase of the session

Training example for HIIT

Rugby League

• A rugby league player completes 30 seconds of full-contact tackling drills followed by 30 seconds of jogging, repeated for 10-12 minutes.

• This simulates game conditions where players must make repeated tackles, sprint in attack, and recover quickly, improving anaerobic endurance and overall match fitness.

Sprint Interval Training (SIT)

• Sprint Interval Training involves short bursts of maximal sprinting effort followed by longer periods of rest or low-intensity exercise.

• It is a type of high-intensity interval training (HIIT).

Training example for SIT

Soccer

A soccer forward performs 6 x 40m sprints at maximum effort with 2-minute rest periods.

Develops acceleration and speed, crucial for making fast attacking runs, breaking defensive lines, and counterattacking effectively.

Plyometric Training

designed to produce fast, powerful movements and improve the nervous system's functions.

• The aim of plyometrics is to increase muscular power by first stretching a muscle & then contracting it in the shortest possible time.

• It involves rapid movements aimed at using the strength and elasticity of a muscle to jump higher, run faster, throw farther, or hit harder, depending on the demands of the sport you are training for

Training example for plyometric training

Swimming (Starts and Turns)

• A swimmer performs explosive squat jumps, tuck jumps, and plyometric push-ups to improve start power and push-off from turns.

• Enhances dive starts and wall push-offs, helping swimmers generate more force and streamline their movements efficiently.

Resistance training

• involves lifting, pushing, or pulling against resistance (e.g., weights, bands, bodyweight).

• Develops muscular strength, power, and endurance.

• Can be performed using free weights, machines, resistance bands, or bodyweight exercises.

Isotonic weight training

• Muscle changes length working against a constant load, e.g. bicep curl, bench press etc.

• Isotonic contractions can be divided into two types of muscular contraction;

  • Concentric contraction – muscle shortens during contraction, e.g. raising phase of bicep curl (diagram 1)

  • Eccentric contraction – muscle lengthens during contraction, e.g. lowering phase of bicep curl (diagram 2)

Isometric resistance training

• Type of strength training where the joint angle and muscle length do not change during contraction. 

• This can be completed using the body's own structure – e.g. holding a plank, bridge, or crouched position or by using weights – e.g. holding a bench press in a fixed position.

Isokinetic resistance training

• An isokinetic force changes muscle length against a varying load so that the resistance changes throughout the muscle’s range of movement.

• It cannot be done using free weights but requires expensive specialised equipment to ensure the speed of muscular contraction remains constant.

What is continuous training

1. (long slow, distance training or low-intensity steady state) 

2. Involves performing an activity such as jogging, cycling or swimming, nonstop for an extended amount of time. 

3. Used to improve aerobic fitness and local muscular endurance 

4. To maximise the benefits of continuous training , a heart rate range of 70-85% max HR should be maintained for a minimum of 20 minutes. 

5. This is known as the Aerobic Training Zone

6. Involves sustained activity for a period of over 20 minutes 

Lactate threshold training

• Lactate threshold training can be continuous in nature and requires an exercise intensity or at a slightly above the lactate threshold. 

• Research suggests training at or close to one's lactate threshold increases the intensity at which it occurs. 

• While measuring one's exact lactate threshold outside of a laboratory is difficult, this usually occurs by exercising at a heart rate of approximately 85-90% max HR.

Fartlek Training

• A variation of continuous training involves intensity changes throughout the training sessions. 

• These changes in intensity can be simply an increase in pace or running up a hill & involve the addition of the anaerobic glycolysis energy system to help produce the increased amount of ATP needed for the increased intensity. 

Example of fartlek training

• Soccer (midfielder’s endurance & agility)

• A soccer midfielder performs a 30-minute session with a mix of jogging, sprinting, and acceleration drills, changing speed every 3-4 minutes.

• Simulates real-game movement patterns, where players constantly shift between walking, jogging, and sprinting.

Interval training

• Series of repeated bouts of exercise interrupted by predetermined rest periods or lighter exercise

• Depending on the length of the work & rest periods, interval training can be used to develop any of the three energy systems.

Long interval training

• Long Interval Training is where the Aerobic energy system dominates the work period.

• This occurs when the work period is 1 minute or longer or the work-to-rest ratio is 1:1 or greater (2:1, 3:1 etc.)

• Long-interval training aims to increase the performer’s lactate threshold (LT)

Example of interval training

• Basketball (game-specific conditioning)

• A basketball player performs 6 x 4-minute full-court shuttle runs at 80% max effort, with 2 minutes of recovery jogging between reps.

• Improves endurance for repeated high-intensity efforts, mimicking in-game situations like fast breaks and defensive transitions.

Circuit training

• Circuit Training comprises a sequenced performance of exercises at different activity stations (typically, between 8-12 stations) completed in a given time or by a predetermined work: rest ratio.

• The completion of each exercise in the circuit once is known as a lap (2 or 3 laps of exercises are usually performed in a circuit)

• Can be tailored to suit the needs of an individual / develop specific components of fitness / improve their overall fitness

Example of circuit training

• Cone drills with direction changes – sprint, side-step, and backpedal through a marked grid.

• Bodyweight squats to jump – continuous low-impact squats with an occasional explosive jumps

• Sled pulls (light resistance) – replicates ruck engagements and scrummaging endurance.

Static stretching

a muscle is stretched to a length that is uncomfortable, but not painful, and held for a minimum of 30 seconds used to develop static flexibility

Example of static stretching

Examples: Gymnastics (splits training)

A gymnast sits in a front split position and holds the stretch for 30-60 seconds on each leg.

Enhances flexibility in the hamstrings, hip flexors, and groin, allowing gymnasts to achieve greater range of motion for movements like leaps, jumps, and floor routines.

Dynamic stretching

• Athletes perform movements that take their points through their range of motion (ROM) to produce temporal stretches of selected muscles. 

  • These movements are continuous, and the stretch is not held. 

Example of dynamic stretching

Basketball (upper & lower body activation)

a basketball player does arm circles, torso twists, and butt kicks during warm-ups.

helps activate key muscle groups for jumping, dribbling, and shooting by gradually increasing range of motion and reducing injury risk.

Ballistic stretching

• It involves using the momentum of a moving body or a limb to force it beyond its normal range of motion.

• It involves bouncing into or out of a stretched position

• E.g. Bouncing down repeatedly to touch your toes

• Potentially dangerous, so only appropriate in limited circumstances (e.g. ballet dancer)

Example of ballistic stretching

Ballet (leg & hip mobility for performance)

• A ballet dancer performs bouncing hamstring stretches, reaching toward their toes and pulsing deeper into the stretch.

• Enhances flexibility for leaps, extensions, and graceful movements, improving overall dance performance.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF)

• An advanced form of flexibility training involving the contraction and stretching of specific muscles

• Stretching involves a static stretch (30 sec), followed by a contraction of the stretched muscle

• until the stretch is no longer felt (usually around 5-10 sec), then a further lengthening of the

• muscle to hold another static stretch (20-30 sec sec)

• Should be performed under guidance due to risk of overstretching, causing injury

Example of PNF

Gymnastics (hamstring flexibility for tumbling & splits)

A gymnast lies on their back, has a partner push their straight leg into a hamstring stretch, then contracts their hamstring for 5-10 seconds before relaxing and deepening the stretch.

Maximises hamstring flexibility for performing split leaps, backflips, and other advanced movements requiring extended leg positions.

What is strength training?

Strength training involves placing resistance against muscles, causing muscle fibres to tear and repair, resulting in stronger and larger muscles.

Why do muscles become stronger after strength training?

Muscle fibres tear during exercise and repair by forming additional muscle tissue, making them stronger and more resistant to future stress.

What is progressive overload?

Progressive overload is continually increasing the resistance placed on muscles so they keep adapting and growing stronger.

What are free weights?

Free weights are equipment such as dumbbells and barbells that require the athlete to control and balance the weight during movement.

What are the benefits of free weights?

Free weights strengthen both major muscles and stabilising muscles, improving overall strength and coordination.

What are fixed weights?

Fixed weights are machine-based weights that guide movement through a controlled range of motion.

Why are fixed wights suitable for beginners?

They reduce the risk of poor technique, provide support, and remove the complexity of balancing free weights.

How can weight training be tailored to specific sports?

Exercises can mimic the movement patterns, muscle groups, and contractions used in a particular sport.

example of sport-specific weight training.

A rower may perform a shoulder press because it mimics the isotonic contractions and muscle groups used during rowing.

Why is correct technique important in weight training?

Proper technique reduces the risk of injury and ensures the targeted muscles are trained effectively.

What are body weight exercises (calisthenics)?

Exercises that use an individual's own body weight as resistance without requiring specialised equipment.

What are some examples of body weight exercises?

Push-ups, squats, lunges, and planks.

What is an advantage of body weight training?

It can be performed anywhere without equipment.

What does scalability mean in body weight training?

Exercises can be adjusted to suit beginners or progressed into more challenging variations for advanced athletes.

What is functional strength?

Strength used for everyday activities such as sitting, standing, walking, and lifting.

How do body weight exercises develop functional strength?

They use compound movements that mimic real-life actions and sporting movements.

Why are body weight exercises useful in rehabilitation and recovery?

They are low impact and provide a safe way to maintain strength and flexibility.

What are elastics in strength training?

Resistance bands that provide resistance during exercise and can be attached to stable objects or used independently.

What is an advantage of elastic resistance bands?

They are versatile, portable, and can provide resistance for a wide variety of exercises.

What is skill training?

Training designed to improve an athlete's ability to perform sport-specific skills effectively and consistently.

Why must skill training be customised?

Athletes have different skill levels, stages of skill acquisition, and sporting requirements.

What factors should skill training be adapted to?

The athlete's current skill level, stage of skill acquisition, and sport-specific demands.

What is drill practice?

Frequent repetition of fundamental skills under minimal pressure so athletes can focus on technique.

What is the main purpose of drill practice?

To improve technical proficiency and consistency in fundamental skills.

How can drills improve fundamental skills?

Through repeated practice of key movements, such as passing in soccer.

How can drills address individual athlete needs?

They can focus on specific weaknesses or specialised skills, known as functional practice.

What is an example of functional practice?

A rugby union fly-half repeatedly practising kicking skills.

How can pressure be increased during drill practice?

By increasing the speed, intensity, or complexity of the drill.

What are modified games?

Smaller-scale versions of the actual sport designed to develop skills in a competitive environment.

What are small-sided games?

Games with fewer players that increase involvement and opportunities to practise skills.

Why are modified games used after drills practice?

They allow athletes to apply skills in an open, game-like environment under pressure.

Give an example of a modified game.

A 5-a-side soccer game used to prepare players for an 11-a-side match.

What is a benefit of modified and small-sided games?

Increased player involvement because athletes are constantly engaged in play.

What are games for specific outcomes?

Activities designed to develop cognitive skills such as decision-making and tactical awareness.

Why are games for specific outcomes important?

They help athletes apply skills accurately by making effective decisions during competition.

What cognitive abilities are developed through games for specific outcomes?

Decision-making, tactical awareness, and strategic thinking.

Give an example of a game for a specific outcome.

Practising attacking options from a centre-field scrum in rugby union.

How should games for decision-making and tactical awareness be performed?

Under gradually increasing amounts of pressure to replicate competitive situations.

What is the difference between drills and modified games?

Drills focus on technique under minimal pressure, while modified games focus on applying skills under game-like pressure.

What is the difference between modified games and games for specific outcomes?

Modified games develop general skill application, whereas games for specific outcomes target decision-making and tactical awareness.

Progressive overload can be applied to training programs by:

• Increasing the number of repetitions 

• Increasing the number of sets 

• Increasing the distance 

• Increasing the intensity within the set zone

• Increasing the duration of work 

• Decreasing the amount of rest 

Example of progressive overload

Aerobic Training- Soccer (endurance development) 

• Application: A soccer midfielder looking to improve endurance progressively increases running distance, session duration, or intensity each week. 

Training threshold

• The minimum intensity required to produce a training adaptation. 

• Training above a threshold results in physiological improvements in aerobic or anaerobic capacity. 

• Two key thresholds: 

  • Aerobic threshold→ Minimum intensity to improve endurance 

  • Anaerobic threshold → Maximum intensity before lactate accumulation increases significantly.

Reversibility (detraining)

• The loss of physiological performance (detraining) occurs as a result of a person terminating or scaling back a regular training program

• This usually starts in the first 1-2 weeks and increases the longer the athlete remains out of training. 

• VO2 max can reduce by up to 20% within 3-12 weeks of no training. 

Specificity

• Relevant to the energy system, position-specific movements and fitness requirements of an activity. 

• This information is fathered through a game analysis to understand the sports specific demands. 

• The athletes get what they train for- swimming training does not improve cricket skills. 

• To ensure the principle of specificity is applied, we have coaches specific to playing positions to ensure professional athletes training is tailored towards the individual demands of the position. 

What is resting heart rate?

• Heart beats per minute (bpm)

• Trained athlete= lower resting heart rate- due to efficiency of cardiovascular system and higher stroke volume (amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart beat per contraction) 

  • Average resting: 70-90 bpm

  • Trained resting: 30/40-60 bpm 

  • Prolonged exercise: fit persons heart rate will plateau, unfit rise 

  • Exercise stops: fitter return to resting faster 

What is stroke volume

• SV= amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per contraction 

• Untrained

  • At rest- 70/90 ml per beat 

  • During exercise- 100/120ml per beat 

• Trained

  • At rest- 100-120 ml per beat can be as high as 200ml per beat 

  • During exercise- 150-170ml per beat 

  • Notably higher at maximal activity 

Cardiac output

• CO= amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per minute 

• SV x HR= CO

  • At rest = 5-6L per minute- little difference due to decreased HR and increased SV meaning similar levels

  • Untrained - 15-20L per minute

  • Trained - 20-25L per minute, as high as 40 L 

  • Increased cardiac output = increased oxygen uptake and availability

Oxygen Uptake

• Amount of oxygen drawn into the lungs mL/kg/min 

• High oxygen uptake max indicates efficient oxygen delivery system= good endurance performance 

What is VO2 max affected by?

• Genetics

• Asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

• Gender 

• males have a higher VO2 max than females due to increased muscle percentage and increased haemoglobin levels

• Age

• VO2 max increases up until the age of around 25, when it will slowly start to decline

• Training status 

• aerobic training can improve VO2 max by up to 20%

Lung capacity

• LC = amount of air that lungs can hold

• performance hindered if respiratory system does not supply enough oxygen to meet demand

• Total lung capacity = 600 mL in males and less in females due to smaller size

• Vital capacity = amount of air expelled after maximal inspiration increases slightly

• Residual volume = amount of air that remains in a person's lungs after fully exhaling slight decrease

• Tidal volume = volume of air moved into and out of the lungs during each ventilation cycle unchanged at rest and submaximal exercise increase at maximal levels

Haemoglobin Levels

• Haemoglobin contained in red blood cells of body – transports oxygen for energy production

• General endurance training increase level up to 20%  

  - Due to increase in plasma + red blood cells

Muscle hypertrophy

• Muscle growth and increase in size of muscle cells-  increase in mass and cross-sectional area

• In cessation of activity-  muscular atrophy where fibres reduce in size – reversibility + specificity

Effect on fast twitch muscle fibres

• Adaptations include: 

  • Hypertrophy 

  • Increased PC stores 

  • Increased enzymes for glycolysis 

  • Removal of lactate acid 

effect on slow twitch

• Adaptations include: 

  • Increase in aerobic enzymes needed for ATP production in the aerobic energy system 

  • Increased glycogen and fat stores 

  • All of these adaptations help in the delivery of ATP through the aerobic energy system.

Why do training sessions differ between individual and group sports?

They differ based on training goals, athlete needs, and session structure.

What is the purpose of a well-designed training session?

To ensure effective skill development, fitness improvement, and injury prevention.

What key aspects must be considered when designing a training session?

Health and safety, session goals, warm-up and cool-down, skill instruction and practice, conditioning, strategies and tactics, and athlete reflection or coach evaluation.

Why are health and safety important in training sessions?

They help prevent injuries, protect athlete wellbeing, and optimise performance.

What are the key health and safety considerations in training?

Injury prevention, equipment safety, environmental factors, physical and mental wellbeing, and emergency protocols.

How can injury prevention be achieved during training?

Through progressive overload, adequate rest periods, and appropriate training loads.

Why is equipment safety important?

Properly maintained equipment reduces the risk of injury and improves performance.

What environmental factors must be considered during training?

Heat, cold, altitude, hydration needs, and weather conditions.

Why should coaches monitor athletes' physical and mental wellbeing?

Fatigue and stress can increase injury risk and negatively affect performance.

What emergency protocols should be in place during training?

First aid procedures, concussion protocols, and access to medical assistance.

How is health and safety managed in individual sports?

Athletes take greater responsibility for monitoring their own safety and training loads.