PRAGMATICS - Introduction to Linguistics

Pragmatics

It is a field in linguistics and philosophy that studies how people use language in real situations to communicate meanings that go beyond the literal words and grammar. It focuses on how utterances convey propositions, intentions, attitudes, and other meanings influenced by context rather than literal semantic content.

Speech Act Theory

In this theory, J.L. Austin argued against the idea that meaningful sentences must be empirically verifiable. He proposed that language does more than describe; it performs actions.

John Langshaw Austin

The proponent of Speech Act Theory.

Locutionary Acts

Utterance of words or sentences. THE WORDS YOU SAY.

Illocutionary Acts

Actions performed in saying something (example: requesting). WHAT YOU MEAN BY SAYING IT.

Perlocutionary Acts

Effects produced by saying something (example: persuading). WHAT HAPPENS BECAUSE YOU SAID IT.

John Searle

He expanded Austin’s work into a taxonomy of speech acts.

Assertives

Statements, descriptions, and predictions.

Directives

Orders, requests, and direction giving.

Commissives

Promises, oaths, and bets.

Expressives

Greetings, congratulations, and thanks.

Declarations

Excommunications, hirings, and declarations of war.

Indirect Speech Acts

The intended act differs from the literal form. A possible example is “You are standing on my foot,” an assertion or statement likely used as a means of requesting or demanding that the hearer cease standing on one’s foot.

Implicature Theory

In this theory, H.P. Grice explained how nonliteral meanings arise through conversational maxims, guiding how speakers and listeners cooperate rationally in conversation.

Cooperative Principle

A concept by H.P. Grice, he explained that speakers are expected to make contributions that are: sufficiently informative, truthful, relevant, and clear and orderly. People tend to follow secret “talking rules” so conversations work nicely.

Herbert Paul Grice

He invented the Implicature Theory, and its corresponding Cooperative Principle.

Relevance Theory

In this theory, Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson defines relevance in terms of cognitive effects relative to the processing effort required by the listener. Speakers are assumed to intend their utterances to be optimally relevant, balancing meaningful effects with processing cost, and listeners assume this intent when interpreting utterances. People say things expecting you to find the most useful meaning easily.

Speech Acts

Language use that performs actions (requesting, promising, apologizing). Example: “I promise I will be there on time.”, committing to future action.

Deixis

Context-dependent expressions referring to elements in the situation. Example: “I will meet you there”., there depends on speaker/listener context.

Implicature

Implied meaning is not explicitly stated, inferred from context. Example: “It’s getting late, and I have an early morning tomorrow.”, suggests desire to end conversation without stating it.

Politeness

Polite, respectful ways of speaking to others. Example: “Thank you very much for your help!”.

Conversational Maxims

These are principles that guide cooperative communication (based on quantity, quality, relation, or manner). Maxim of Quantity: “I need a medium-sized box for shipping.”; Maxim of Quality: “The meeting starts at 9 am.”; Maxim of Relation: “Regarding your question…”; Maxim of Manner: “Could you please explain the steps one by one?”

Presupposition

These are assumptions taken as true within an utterance. Example: “Do you still have your book with you?”, assumes the listener has a book.