Psychology/Sociology Terms

Base Rate Fallacy

Tendency to ignore prior probabilities and general population averages when judging the likelihood of an event, focusing instead on specific or stereotypical information.

Behaviorist Theory

• Believes that the actual outcomes of a behavior determine whether that behavior will be repeated

• All human and animal actions are learned through interaction with the external environment rather than internal thoughts

Extrinsic Motivation

• Broader term

• Refers to any motivation that results from incentives to perform a behavior that are not inherent to the behavior itself

• Includes both punishers and reinforces

• External motivation is a type of extrinsic motivation

External Motivation

• Includes social pressures, peer influences, and direct social control

• More specific type of extrinsic motivation

Representative Heuristic

Judging a category or probability based on how well an example matches a mental prototype instead of actual statistics.

Observer Bias

• Systematic errors in data collection or interpretation caused by a researcher's conscious or unconscious expectations, pre-existing beliefs, and prejudices

• Occurs frequently when researchers are aware of a study’s hypothesis and inadvertently influence observations, leading to a compromised validity

• Tendency to “see what you expect to see” rather than what is objectively present

Observer Bias

It often occurs when researchers know the study's hypothesis and unintentionally influence observations.

Public Verifiability

• In science, data, methods, and results must be open to review and replication by others.

• Reason other scientists are attempting to replicate original findings

Public Verifiability

It allows other scientists to replicate original findings.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions, which can interfere with problem solving.

Availability Heuristic

• Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

• If memories are more vivid, emotional, or recent, your brain assumes they are common, which leads to overestimating actual probabilities

• Relies on ease of recall, rather than actual statistics data

Availability Heuristic

Vivid, emotional, or recent memories are easier to recall, causing people to overestimate their frequency.

Reaction Formation

A defense mechanism where an unacceptable impulse, thought, or feeling is unconsciously converted into its opposite.

Example of Reaction Formation

Being overly friendly to someone you secretly dislike.

Sublimation

A defense mechanism that redirects unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable and productive activities.

Example of Sublimation

Channeling anger into sports, exercise, or art.

Criterion of Abnormality

Maladaptiveness, Statistical Rarity, Personal Distress, Social Norm Violation

Maladaptiveness

• A criterion of abnormality

• Interferes with daily life and well-being and if it poses threat to others

Personality Distress

• A criterion of abnormality

• Causes deep emotional pain or suffering

• Determines whether the behavior demonstrates unusual or prolonged levels of stress

Statistical Rarity

• A criterion of abnormality

• Infrequent in the general population

• Takes into account whether the behavior is rare

Social Norm Violation

• A criterion of abnormality

• Breaks cultural rules or standards

Schema

A mental framework used to organize, categorize, and interpret information about objects, actions, and concepts.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Sequence: Stimulus → Physiological/Behavioral response → Emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Sequence: Stimulus → Physiological response and Emotion occur simultaneously and independently.

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

Sequence: Stimulus → Physiological response → Cognitive interpretation/labeling → Emotion

Lazarus Theory

Sequence: Stimulus → Cognitive appraisal → Emotion and Physiological response

Social Learning Theory

People learn behaviors by observing and modeling others.

Social Cognitive Theory

People learn through observational learning, reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy, and internal mental processes.

Gender Socialization

The learning of norms and values associated with masculinity and femininity.

Naming Explosion

• Rapid increase in a toddler’s rate of word acquisition

• Typically occurs around 16 to 24 months of ager after learning about 50 words

Overextension

Applying a word used for one class of objects to another object with only a superficial resemblance.

Example of Overextension

Calling a cow "doggie."

Categorical Perception

The idea that there are distinct categories for things that actually occur on a continuum.

Systematic Desensitization

A classical conditioning technique that gradually increases exposure/intensity to a feared stimulus until it no longer produces the conditioned response.

Purpose of Systematic Desensitization

Used to treat phobias and anxiety by replacing fear with relaxation through counterconditioning.

Counterconditioning

Pairing a feared stimulus with a positive or neutral response instead of fear.

Elaborative Encoding

• Combining new information with existing memories to improve long-term recall.

Benefit of Elaborative Encoding

Increases the likelihood of successfully retrieving information later.

Biomedical Model

• A psychological model that explains mental disorders primarily through biological and physical factors.

• Ignores the psychological or social factors

• Treating conditions with medical interventions

Disinhibition

• Behavioral trait characterized by the lack of restraint, impulsivity, and the disregard of social norms

• Can be caused by damage to Frontal Lobe Control

• Alcohol and other Depressants can lead to temporary behavioral disinhibition

• Hallmark feature of ADHD and Borderline Personality Disorder