Final Review Focus Questions

Is Earth the only place in the Solar System where geologic processes are (or have been) active?

No, geologic processes have been active on other Solar System bodies such as Mars, Venus, and Jupiter's moon Io.

On which Solar System bodies are surface liquids stable on the surface today?

Surface liquids are stable on the surface of Earth, Titan (a moon of Saturn), and possibly Europa (a moon of Jupiter).

Is the liquid always water?

No, on Titan, the stable surface liquid is methane and ethane, while on Europa it is believed to be a subsurface ocean of salty water.

What is meant by global warming?

Global warming refers to the long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere, primarily caused by the increase in greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, resulting from human activities.

What is meant by climate change?

Climate change refers to a broad range of long-term changes in the Earth's climate, including changes in temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns that are caused by human activities, natural factors, or a combination of both.

Is climate change related to global warming?

Yes, global warming is one of the main causes of climate change, as the increase in greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, is trapping more heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to changes in the climate.

What is the trend in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels?

The trend in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels is increasing, primarily due to human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

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How does the trend compare to levels going back 800,000 years?

The trend in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels is much higher now than at any time in the last 800,000 years, according to ice core data.

How consistent is the trend? How do we know what the carbon dioxide levels were over the last 800,000 years?

The trend in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels is consistent, as multiple lines of evidence, including ice core data, tree ring data, and sediment data, all show a similar increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels over the last century. We know what the carbon dioxide levels were over the last 800,000 years by analyzing ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland.

What is the greenhouse effect and how does it work?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to a warming effect. This warming effect helps to keep the Earth's temperature within a range that is suitable for life.

Is carbon dioxide the only gas that affects climate?

No, other gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases also contribute to climate change by trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere.

What are some projected consequences of global warming and climate change?

Some projected consequences of global warming and climate change include rising sea levels, more frequent and severe weather events, changes in precipitation patterns, and impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.

How do we know where earthquakes have occurred?

We know where earthquakes have occurred through the use of seismographs, which record the seismic waves generated by the earthquake.

Are earthquakes common?

Yes, earthquakes are relatively common, with thousands of them occurring each day around the world. However, most of these earthquakes are small and go unnoticed.

Are high magnitude earthquakes more common or less common than low magnitude earthquakes?

High magnitude earthquakes are less common than low magnitude earthquakes. The frequency of earthquakes decreases rapidly as the magnitude increases.

What is a seismic gap?

A seismic gap is a section of a fault line that has not experienced a significant earthquake in a long time. This section is believed to be storing energy and is considered to be at risk of a future earthquake.

What creates a tsunami?

A tsunami is typically created by a large undersea earthquake that causes a displacement of water, creating a wave that can travel across the ocean and cause damage when it reaches the shore.

What causes most earthquakes?

Most earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates, which create stresses and strains that build up over time and are released suddenly in the form of an earthquake.

Where do most major earthquakes occur?

Most major earthquakes occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates, such as the Pacific Ring of Fire.

What is a seismic wave?

A seismic wave is a wave of energy that travels through the Earth's interior as a result of an earthquake.

What are the differences between body and surface waves?

Body waves travel through the Earth's interior, while surface waves travel along the Earth's surface. Body waves include P waves and S waves, while surface waves include Love waves and Rayleigh waves.

Which type usually causes the most damage to structures?

Surface waves, especially Love waves, typically cause the most damage to structures.

What are the differences between P and S waves?

P waves are primary waves that travel through solid and liquid materials, while S waves are secondary waves that only travel through solid materials. P waves travel faster than S waves.

How do the differences help us learn about Earth's interior?

The differences in how P and S waves travel and the time it takes them to arrive at different locations allow us to create models of the Earth's interior, including its composition and density.

Which type of seismic wave is first to arrive?

P waves are the first type of seismic wave to arrive, as they travel faster than other types of waves.

How is the ocean floor mapped?

The ocean floor is mapped using a variety of techniques, including sonar, satellite measurements, and deep-sea drilling.

How do plate movements relate to the creation and destruction of ocean floors?

Plate movements drive the creation and destruction of ocean floors. At mid-ocean ridges, plates are spreading apart and new ocean floor is being created, while at ocean trenches, plates are converging and old ocean floor is being destroyed.

What is happening at a mid-ocean ridge?

At a mid-ocean ridge, plates are spreading apart and magma is rising from the mantle to create new ocean floor.

What is happening at an ocean trench?

At an ocean trench, plates are converging and one plate is being forced beneath the other in a process called subduction. This process leads to the destruction of old ocean floor.

Does the lithosphere get thinner or thicker as you get farther from a mid-ocean ridge?

Why

The lithosphere gets thicker as you get farther from a mid-ocean ridge. This is because the ocean floor cools as it moves away from the ridge, becoming denser and thicker.

How old is the Atlantic Ocean?

The Atlantic Ocean is believed to be approximately 200 million years old, based on the age of the oldest rocks found on its floor.

What is the primary distinction between active and passive margins?

Active margins are located at plate boundaries and are associated with tectonic activity, while passive margins are not located at plate boundaries and are not associated with tectonic activity.

What are the major divisions of the Earth's interior?

The Earth's interior can be divided into three major layers: crust, mantle, and core.

Which divisions of the Earth's interior are based on chemical differences?

Crust - oxygen, silicon, and aluminum

Mantle - silicate minerals

Core - iron, nickel

Which divisions of the Earth's interior are based on physical differences?

Crust - thinnest and coolest layer

Mantle - denser and hotter

Core - even denser and under high pressure

What is a lithospheric plate?

A lithospheric plate, also known as a tectonic plate, is a rigid and solid piece of the Earth's outermost shell, the lithosphere

Are lithospheric plates stationary, or do they move?

Lithospheric plates are not stationary, they move and interact with each other at their boundaries.

What does the motion of lithospheric plates mean for the locations of continents over time?

The motion of lithospheric plates causes the positions of continents and oceans to change over time, a process known as plate tectonics.

What is thought to be the driver of plate motion?

The motion of lithospheric plates is thought to be driven by the movements of the underlying mantle, which can be influenced by convection currents in the mantle caused by heat from the Earth's core.

What do lithospheric plates have to do with the Theory of Plate Tectonics?

The theory describes how these plates move and interact with each other to shape the Earth's surface.

What is the Theory of Plate Tectonics meant to explain?

The movement of lithospheric plates and how they interact with each other to create geological features such as mountain ranges, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.

What are the major pieces of evidence that support the Theory of Plate Tectonics?

* The matching shapes of continents across the Atlantic Ocean
* The distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes along plate boundaries
* The magnetic patterns on the seafloor that suggest the seafloor is spreading from the center of the mid-ocean ridges

How does deformation occur?

Deformation occurs when stress is applied to rocks, causing them to change shape or break.

What types of geologic structural features are created by deformation?

Deformation can create faults, folds, and joints.

Which geologic structural features are created by compressional stress?

Anticlines and Synclines

Which geologic structural features are created by extensional (tensional) stress?

Extensional stress can create normal faults and horsts and grabens.

Which geologic structural features are created by shear stress?

Shear stress can create strike-slip faults.

How are deformations related to plate movements?

Deformations are related to plate movements because the movement and collision of plates create stress in the crust that can cause deformation.

What is the difference between a fault and a joint?

A fault is a fracture where there has been movement, while a joint is a fracture where there has been no movement.

What are the different types of faults?

The different types of faults are normal faults, reverse faults, and strike-slip faults.

How can you recognize different types of faults?

* Normal faults have the hanging wall move down relative to the footwall.
* Reverse faults have the hanging wall move up relative to the footwall.
* Strike-slip faults have horizontal movement along the fault.

Why do some rocks break and others bend?

Rocks break when the stress applied to them exceeds their strength, while rocks bend when the stress is applied more slowly or over a longer period of time.

What are the factors that affect whether a rock experiences brittle or ductile deformation?

The factors that affect whether a rock experiences brittle or ductile deformation are temperature, pressure, strain rate, and rock type.

What is a geologic example of ductile deformation?

An example of ductile deformation is the folding of rocks in mountain ranges.

What is a geologic example of brittle deformation?

An example of brittle deformation is the formation of faults in the Earth's crust.

How does the Theory of Plate Tectonics relate to mountain building?

The movement and interactions of lithospheric plates create various types of plate boundaries that can cause mountain building.

What type of plate boundary is responsible for most continental mountains?

Convergent plate boundaries are responsible for most continental mountains.

What type of process is responsible for the formation of the Himalayan mountains?

The collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates is responsible for the formation of the Himalayan mountains.

What are common results from convergent boundary mountain building episodes?

Common results include folded and faulted rocks, uplift, and deformation of the crust.

What is Exotic Terrane?

An exotic terrane is a piece of crust with a geologic history distinct from the surrounding rock.

What is the difference between relative age and absolute age?

Relative age refers to the order of events, while absolute age refers to the actual age of an object or event in years.

What age is considered young for a mountain range or belt?

A mountain range or belt is considered young if it is less than 100 million years old.

What is the Geologic Time Scale?

The Geologic Time Scale is a timeline of Earth's history that is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. It covers about 4.6 billion years.

What is the difference between a renewable resource and a nonrenewable resource?

Renewable resources can be replenished naturally at the same rate or faster than they are consumed, while nonrenewable resources cannot be replenished or are replenished extremely slowly.

What is an example of a renewable resource and nonrenewable resource?

Renewable resources: solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy

Nonrenewable resources: coal, oil, natural gas.

Are mineral resources evenly distributed around the world or usually concentrated in specific areas?

Mineral resources are usually concentrated in specific areas, and their distribution is not even around the world.

What are some ways to concentrate mineral resources?

Mineral resources can be concentrated by geologic processes such as mountain building, by weathering and erosion, or by human activities such as mining and extraction.

What is an example of a metallic mineral resource?

Copper, iron, gold, and silver are all examples of metallic mineral resources.

What is an example of a nonmetallic mineral resource?

Salt, sand, gravel, and limestone are all examples of nonmetallic mineral resources.

Why is oil shale not a major source of oil today?

Oil shale is not a major source of oil today because it is more expensive and environmentally damaging to extract than conventional oil.

What is fracking, and what does it produce?

Fracking, or hydraulic fracturing, is a process used to extract natural gas and oil from shale rock formations. It involves injecting high-pressure water, sand, and chemicals into the rock to release the gas and oil.

What is a common objective of electricity production from different types of energy sources?

A common objective of electricity production from different types of energy sources is to generate electricity efficiently and at a reasonable cost, while minimizing negative environmental impacts.

What is an example of an energy production mechanism that uses liquid water but does not use steam?

Hydroelectric power plants use the kinetic energy of falling water to generate electricity, without the need for steam.

What is an example of an energy production mechanism that does not use liquid water or steam?

Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity, without the need for liquid water or steam.

Why are some groundwater sources considered renewable and others are considered nonrenewable?

Groundwater sources are considered renewable if they are recharged naturally at a rate that is equal to or faster than they are being used, and nonrenewable if they are being depleted faster than they are being recharged. Factors such as climate, geology, and human activities can influence the recharge rate of groundwater.