Brain and Behavior (Ch. 6)

Addiction

A condition where the body or mind becomes dependent on a substance or behavior.

Agonist

A substance that activates a receptor in the brain to produce a biological response.

Amphetamine

A stimulant drug that increases alertness and energy by boosting dopamine levels.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or dampens the effect of a receptor in the brain.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A condition marked by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness.

Behavioral Myopia

Short-term thinking caused by immediate environmental cues, often linked to risky behavior.

Competitive Inhibitor

A substance that competes with the natural substrate to bind to a receptor or enzyme.

Disinhibition Theory

Suggests alcohol reduces social inhibitions by depressing brain areas responsible for controlling behavior.

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

The theory that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of dopamine activity in the brain.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

A range of effects caused by prenatal alcohol exposure, including physical and cognitive disabilities.

Major Depression

A mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms that interfere with daily life.

Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitor

A type of antidepressant that prevents the breakdown of certain neurotransmitters.

Psychoactive Drug

A substance that alters brain function, affecting mood, perception, or behavior.

Psychomotor Activation

Increased physical activity and mental alertness, often triggered by stimulant drugs.

Psychopharmacology

The study of how drugs affect behavior and mental processes.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)

A type of antidepressant that increases serotonin levels in the brain.

Sensitization

An increased response to a drug after repeated use.

Substance Use Disorder (SUD)

A condition where the recurrent use of substances leads to significant impairment or distress.

Tolerance

The process where a person needs more of a substance to achieve the same effect over time.

Tricyclic

A class of antidepressants that increase the levels of norepinephrine and serotonin by blocking their reuptake.

Wanting-and-Liking Theory

A theory suggesting addiction involves a split between wanting a drug and actually enjoying it.

Withdrawal Symptom

Physical or mental effects that occur when stopping or reducing the use of a drug.

Zoopharmacognosy

The behavior of animals self-medicating with natural substances from their environment.

What is the mechanism of action of adenosinergic drugs like caffeine?

Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors, reducing drowsiness and increasing alertness.

How do cholinergic drugs like nicotine affect neurotransmitter release?

Nicotine stimulates acetylcholine receptors, promoting neurotransmitter release such as dopamine and serotonin.

What effect do GABAergic drugs like alcohol and benzodiazepines have?

They enhance GABA’s inhibitory effects, reducing neuronal firing, leading to sedation or anesthesia.

What is the role of glutamatergic drugs like PCP and ketamine?

They block NMDA receptors, leading to dissociation and anesthetic effects.

How do dopaminergic drugs like cocaine and amphetamines affect dopamine levels?

Cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake, and amphetamines reverse dopamine transport, both increasing dopamine levels.

What do dopaminergic antagonists (antipsychotics) do?

They block dopamine receptors, reducing symptoms of schizophrenia and psychosis.

How do serotonergic drugs like SSRIs and MDMA affect serotonin levels?

SSRIs block serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin levels; LSD and MDMA stimulate serotonin receptors, causing hallucinations.

What is the action of opioid drugs like heroin and morphine?

They bind to opioid receptors, producing pain relief, sedation, and euphoria.

How do cannabinoidergic drugs like THC affect the brain?

They bind to CB1 and CB2 receptors, altering mood, memory, and pain perception.

What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?

It proposes that schizophrenia is linked to excessive dopamine activity, particularly in the frontal lobes.

How does caffeine exert its effects on the brain?

Caffeine binds to adenosine receptors and blocks their action.

Which receptor is primarily involved in reducing anxiety and inducing sedation?

The GABA receptor, which hyperpolarizes neurons through chloride ion influx.

Which neurotransmitter system is mainly targeted by drugs prescribed for depression?

The serotonergic system.

How do opioids mimic the action of natural pain relief?

Opioids mimic the action of endorphins by binding to the same receptors.

What effect does amphetamine have on the dopamine system?

Amphetamine stimulates dopamine release, and cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake.

What neurotransmitter systems are affected by psychotropic drugs?

Psychotropic drugs affect acetylcholine, anandamide, epinephrine, glutamate, norepinephrine, and serotonin systems.

How does caffeine work to increase alertness?

Caffeine acts as an adenosine receptor antagonist, preventing sleepiness and promoting alertness.

What is the primary action of nicotine on the brain?

Nicotine stimulates acetylcholine receptors and promotes the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine.

Name three binding sites on the GABA receptor.

The binding sites are for GABA, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates.

Why is it dangerous to mix alcohol and benzodiazepines?

Both enhance GABAergic inhibition, leading to severe respiratory depression and sedation.

What is an example of a glutamatergic antagonist and its effects?

Ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist, causing cognitive impairment and dissociation.

What effect does blocking dopamine reuptake have at the synaptic cleft?

It increases the amount of dopamine available, prolonging activation of dopamine receptors.

What is one hypothesized cause of schizophrenia?

An overactivity of dopamine in the brain, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway.

What differentiates first-generation from second-generation antipsychotics?

First-generation antipsychotics primarily block dopamine receptors, while second-generation also affect serotonin receptors.

How does blocking dopamine receptors relate to tardive dyskinesia?

Long-term dopamine receptor blockade can lead to tardive dyskinesia, characterized by involuntary repetitive movements.

What role does dopamine play in movement?

Dopamine is essential for controlling movement, and its disruption can lead to movement disorders.

What cognitive effects are associated with serotonergic agonists?

They can alter mood, cognition, and perception, often leading to hallucinations and altered thought patterns.

Compare the mechanisms of action of tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and SSRIs.

TCAs increase norepinephrine and serotonin, while SSRIs specifically block serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin levels.

Define an opioid and give an example.

An opioid is any natural or synthetic drug that binds to opioid receptors. Example: Morphine.

What are some side effects of opioids?

Opioids can cause sedation, respiratory depression, constipation, and euphoria.

What physiological changes are seen with opioid use?

Opioids can cause tolerance, dependency, and reduced pain perception.

What is the role of serotonin in treating major depression?

Increasing serotonin levels can alleviate symptoms of depression by improving mood and cognition over time.

How do SSRIs like fluoxetine promote neuronal repair?

SSRIs help repair stress-damaged neurons, particularly in the hippocampus.

What makes opioids effective for pain management despite their risks?

Their ability to bind to opioid receptors effectively reduces pain, but risks like dependency limit their long-term utility.

Why do SSRIs help in treating depression?

SSRIs increase the availability of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, alleviating depressive symptoms.

What is the effect of serotonin on mood and perception?

Serotonin regulates mood, perception, and cognition, with low levels often linked to depression.

How does naloxone (Narcan) treat opioid overdoses?

Naloxone binds to opioid receptors, blocking opioids from activating them, reversing the effects of an overdose.

What role does the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide play in memory?

It helps regulate memory by modulating neuron activity involved in memory processing, possibly aiding in memory extinction.

Do all cannabinoids have psychoactive effects?

No, cannabinoids that do not strongly bind to CB1 receptors, like some forms of CBD, do not have psychoactive effects.

What neurotransmitter system is affected by caffeine?

The adenosinergic system, as caffeine blocks adenosine receptors.

What are the three main types of antidepressants?

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), and Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).

What is the main effect of GABAergic drugs?

They enhance GABA’s inhibitory effects, reducing neuronal firing and inducing sedation or anesthesia.

How do opioids like heroin mimic natural pain relief?

They bind to opioid receptors, producing effects similar to endorphins.

What hypothesis links dopamine to schizophrenia?

The dopamine hypothesis, which suggests that schizophrenia is caused by excessive dopamine activity, particularly in the frontal lobes.

What is the effect of dopamine antagonists in treating schizophrenia?

They reduce symptoms by blocking dopamine receptors, though they do not fully explain the disorder.

How do SSRIs like fluoxetine (Prozac) help treat depression?

SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, increasing its availability in the synaptic cleft, helping alleviate symptoms of depression.

What is the relationship between learning and drug responses?

Individuals learn behaviors and associations through experience, influencing how they respond to drugs in different contexts.

How does cultural context affect drug use?

Different cultures have varying norms about behavior under the influence of drugs, which can shape individual responses.

What is behavioral myopia in the context of alcohol use?

Behavioral myopia refers to the narrowing of focus on immediate cues and impulsive actions while under the influence of alcohol.

What is drug tolerance?

Tolerance occurs when repeated use of a drug requires higher doses to achieve the same effect.

What is withdrawal, and what symptoms may occur?

Withdrawal occurs when drug use is stopped, leading to symptoms like cravings, anxiety, and physical discomfort.

How does addiction differ from casual drug use?

Addiction is characterized by compulsive drug use despite negative consequences, and frequent relapses.

What are adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), and how do they relate to drug use?

ACEs, such as abuse or parental substance use, increase the risk of developing substance use disorders later in life.

How do sex differences influence drug responses?

Women tend to be more sensitive to drugs due to body composition and are more likely to escalate drug use.

How do individual factors like metabolism affect drug responses?

Factors such as body weight, age, and metabolism influence how a person responds to drugs, with older adults being more sensitive.

What is the impact of repeated drug use on behavior?

Repeated drug use can lead to learned associations with the environment and paraphernalia, triggering cravings even in the absence of the drug.

What is behavioral myopia?

The tendency to focus on immediate cues and impulsive actions while ignoring long-term consequences under the influence of drugs.

What is substance use disorder, and how is it diagnosed?

Substance use disorder is diagnosed based on a range of behavioral and physical symptoms caused by drug use, ranging from mild to severe.

How do addictive drugs produce psychomotor activation?

Addictive drugs often activate the mesolimbic dopamine system, producing feelings of energy and control, contributing to misuse and addiction.

Are women less likely to misuse drugs compared to men?

No, common wisdom is incorrect; women are equally or more likely to misuse drugs, particularly due to physiological and social factors.

Why does alcohol-related behavior vary in an individual?

The variation is influenced by learning, environment, and the individual’s past experiences with alcohol.

What role does dopamine play in addiction?

Dopamine, particularly in the mesolimbic system, is involved in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs, reinforcing compulsive drug use.

How does drug tolerance develop over time?

With repeated drug use, the brain’s response to the drug diminishes, requiring higher doses to achieve the same pleasurable effect.

How does withdrawal contribute to addiction?

The discomfort of withdrawal symptoms, such as cravings and anxiety, drives compulsive drug-seeking behavior to avoid the negative effects.

What factors contribute to relapse in drug addiction?

Triggers like stress, environmental cues, and paraphernalia often prompt relapse even after a period of abstinence.

What physiological processes contribute to substance use disorders?

Tolerance and withdrawal are key physiological processes that drive the development of substance use disorders.

What is the difference between wanting and liking in addiction?

Wanting is driven by cravings and compulsive behavior, while liking refers to the pleasurable effects of the drug.

How does tolerance affect liking over time?

With increased drug use, tolerance develops, reducing the pleasurable effects (liking) of the drug.

What role does the dopaminergic system play in addiction?

The dopaminergic system is primarily responsible for the wanting (craving) aspect of addiction.The dopaminergic system is primarily responsible for the wanting (craving) aspect of addiction.

How do opioids affect the brain in addiction?

Opioids activate hotspots in the brain that mediate the liking (pleasure) associated with drug use.

What is habitual drug use?

Habitual drug use occurs when an individual loses control and engages in compulsive drug-seeking behavior.

How does social stigma impact drug addiction treatment?

Stigma surrounding addiction can prevent individuals from seeking help or accessing effective treatment options.

What are some legal barriers to drug treatment?

Laws like the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914 criminalize drug use and limit treatment options for individuals with substance use disorders.

How does chronic methamphetamine use affect the brain?

It damages dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons, leading to cognitive impairments and brain volume reductions.

What is Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, and how is it related to alcohol use?

It is a condition caused by alcohol misuse and thiamine deficiency, leading to brain damage, especially in the thalamus and cortical areas.

How can MDMA (ecstasy) use affect the brain?

MDMA can cause the degeneration of serotonergic nerve terminals, leading to permanent memory impairments.

How does cocaine affect brain regions?

Cocaine can block cerebral blood flow, reducing brain regions and potentially causing nerve damage.