learning and memory

Learning

The relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.

conditioning

A type of learning that focuses on the association between a stimulus and response

classical conditioning

A type of learning which occurs through repeated association of two or more different stimuli. In which learning is said to have occured when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously elicit.

stimulus

An event that causes a response.

response

Reaction by an organism to a stimulus

Unconditioned response (UCS)

A stimulus which innately produces a response or reflex.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

The response that occurs automatically when a stimulus (UCS) is present

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus which did not provoke a response prior to learning.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The once neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus after numerous pairings with the UCS.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned reflex response to a NS/CS.

three phase model template

The UCS produces UCR. The NS produces no relevant response. The NS is repeatedly presented immediately before the UCS and the UCS produces the UCR. The NS becomes the CS since on its own produces the CR.

operant

A response/s that occurs in the absence of any stimulus and acts upon the environment in the same way each time. It is voluntary.

operant conditioning

A type of learning by which the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the consequences of that behaviour.

reinforcement

Any stimulus that subsequently strengthens or increases the likelihood of the response that it follows.

reinforcer

Any stimulus that changes the probability that an operant behaviour will occur again.

positive reinforcement

A stimulus which strengthens a response by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence.

negative reinforcement

A stimulus that strengthens a response by the reduction, removal or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus.

positive punishment

The presentation of a stimulus, thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again.

negative punishment

Removal of a stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again.

antecedent

What triggers the behaviour.

behaviour

The action that the learner is doing.

consequence

What happens to the learner after the behaviour

observational learning

Occurs when someone watches a model’s actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions.

live model

A real life person who may be demonstrating, acting out and/or describing or explaining a behaviour.

symbolic model

Real or fictional character displaying behaviour in books, movies, television programs, online and other media.

vicarious conditioning

Individual watches a model’s behaviour being either reinforced or punished, and as result, act the same or in a modified way, or they refrain from the behaviour.

vicarious reinforcement

Viewing a model being reinforced can strengthen behaviour in an observer.

vicarious punishment

Viewing a model being punished can weaken behaviour in an observer.

attention

We must actively watch the model’s behaviour. If not, then the distinctive features of the behaviour cannot be recognised.

retention

The learner must form a mental representation of the model’s behaviour in their LTM.

reproduction

The learner needs to have the physical and mental capability to be able to imitate the behaviour that has been observed/learnt.

motivation

The learner must also have the desire to perform the behaviour.

reinforcement

There must be a positive consequence for the learner which will increase the likelihood of the learner repeating the behaviour in the future.

external reinforcement

Relates to learning by external consequences.

vicarious reinforcement

Occurs indirectly by observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced without personally experiencing the reinforcement.

self reinforcement

Occurs when we are reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance that we set for ourselves.

memory

The storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.

encoding

The process of converting raw, sensory information into a form that can be processed by the brain.

storage

The process of maintaining information in a memory store.

retrieval

The process of accessing and diverting information from long term memory to short term memory so that it can be used and/or manipulated.

Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory

Proposes that information passes through 3 levels of memory as it is encoded, stored and retrieved.

sensory memory

The entry area of all memory, all stimuli which bombard our senses are retained in their original forms for a very brief time in memory subsystems called sensory registers.

iconic memory

Visual sensory memory, only lasting for a third of a second, long enough for the identification of the stimulus to begin.

echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory, storing memory for 3-4 seconds.

short term memory

A memory system with limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed in some way.

chunking

The grouping of seperate bits of information into one or more large units, or chunks of information

rehearsal

The process of doing something so that information can be retained in memory and then retrieved when required.

maintenance rehearsal

Involves simple, rote repetition of information being remembered.

explicit memory

memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated.

declarative memory

Memory of specific facts or events that can be consciously retrieved and stated.

episodic

Memory of life events, autobiographical.

semantic

Information about the world, such as areas of expertise, academic knowledge, important places, words, famous people etc.

implicit memory

memory that doesn’t require conscious or intentional retrieval or awareness.

procedural memory

The memory of how to do something, actions and skills, can be physical or intellectual, learnt through conditioning and practice.

classically conditioned memory

Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning are also considered to be a type of implicit memory, particularly those involving fear or anxiety.

consolidatipn

The process by which a temporary memory is transformed into a more stable, long-lasting form.

Hippocampus

Encodes, consolidates and retrieves explicit semantic and episodic memories. It also contributes to the consolidation of these memories by organising it and connecting it to other relevant pieces of information stored in the long term memory, during which it interacts with the amygdala.

amygdala

explicit: Works simultaneously with the hippocampus to encode and consolidate the emotional significance of explicit memory, as well with the retrieval of emotionally significant memories, with the hippocampus assisting in retrieving factual information and the amygdala retrieving emotional components of the memory.

implicit: Helps with the encoding and retrieval of classically conditioned emotional responses in implicit memory, helping to establish the emotional association between stimuli and emotional reactions, and these associations are automatically and unconsciously retrieved from long term memory when encountering similar stimuli.

neocortex

Permanently stores memories in the area where the sensory was typically first processed and widely distributes these memories throughout the neocortex.

basal ganglia

A group of structures that form neural circuits that are crucial to motor control and coordination, as well as other functions such as learning, routine behaviour (habituation) and implicit memory, and allows us to learn and execute motor sequences linked to implicit memories without conscious awareness.

habituation

The process of growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus, which involves a decrease in responsiveness following repeated exposure to a stimulus.

cerebellum

Coordinates and controls fine muscle movements, as well as successive sequences of movement. It’s also involved in activities requiring skilled sequence of movements that require timing and speed, ease and fluency. Also encodes and temporarily stores implicit procedural memories for voluntary movements, motor skills and classically conditioned memories.

reconstruction

The combination of stored information with other information to form a coherent, complete and accurate memory.

episodic future thinking

Projecting yourself forwards in time to pre-experience an event that might happen in your personal future and is also known as ‘mental time travel’.

dementia

A large group of disorders which affects higher mental functions, such as the loss of mental capacity and memory, which can interfere with the ability to function independently.

alzheimer’s disease

The most common form of dementia, accounting for 70% of patients. It causes widespread cell death, and is characterised by memory loss, decline in all aspects of cognitive function, decline in social skills and personality changes.

biological causes of alzheimer’s disease

Atrophied cortical areas, especially the medial temporal lobe and the hippocampus. Deposits of amyloid plaque, that form between the synapses, disrupting communication. Neurofilbrillary tangles, the buildup of tau protein, causing the death of brain cells. Reduced levels of neurotransmitter Ach.

Aphantasia

The lack of accompaniment of a mental image for knowledge. Can be congenital (from birth) or acquired (trauma or significant psychological event).

causes of aphantasia

Most popular theory is that the areas of the brain involved in visual imagery, such as the visual cortex, may have a weaker connection to the cortex involved with attention and decision making. Other theory is that people with aphantasia do experience mental imagery, but are not consciously aware of it.

context dependent cues

Refers to the learner’s external environment in which the memory was formed.

state dependent cues

Refers to the physiological and/or psychological state that the person was in at the time of the learning, when the memory was formed.

elaborative rehearsal

Involves the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in long term memory.

mnemonic device

A form of elaborative rehearsal where the information is connected to material already in long term memory.

method of loci

A mnemonic system that commits a familiar location or series of locations to memory, then visually links them with information that needs to be recalled.

acronyms

Words or a pronounceable syllable, formed from the first letter or each word to be remembered.

acrostic

A phrase (or poem) in which the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help with recall.

songline

At each location in a journey, a song, story, dance or ceremony is performed and will always be associated with that location and allows for the retrieval of Dreaming stories that contain knowledge of a wide range of subjects.