Key Concepts in Social Psychology and Personality

Social psychology

The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Attribution

An explanation for why someone behaves a certain way.

Dispositional attribution

Attributing behavior to a person's stable traits.

Situational attribution

Attributing behavior to external factors or circumstances.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate the impact of personality (dispositional factors) and underestimate the impact of the situation when explaining other people's behavior.

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

People are more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one.

Cognitive dissonance

The discomfort we feel when our actions and attitudes are inconsistent.

Peripheral route persuasion

Persuasion based on superficial cues (e.g., attractiveness).

Central route persuasion

Persuasion based on arguments and evidence.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group.

Normative social influence

Conforming to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational social influence

Conforming because we believe others are correct.

Factors increasing conformity

Group size, unanimity, admiration of the group.

Milgram's obedience study

Showed people obey authority figures even when it means harming others.

Conditions increasing obedience

Authority figure present, prestigious institution, victim depersonalized, no role models for defiance.

Social facilitation

Improved performance in the presence of others.

Social loafing

Reduced effort in a group.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in a group.

Group polarization

Strengthening of group's views.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony overrides realistic alternatives.

Prejudice

Unjustified attitude toward a group.

Discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group.

Components of prejudice

Beliefs (stereotypes), emotions, predisposition to act.

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve.

Ingroup bias

Favoring one's own group.

Scapegoat theory

Blaming others to cope with anger or frustration.

Implicit Association Test

Measures unconscious bias.

Unconscious patronization

Treating individuals differently based on stereotypes.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for others' welfare.

Bystander effect

Tendency to be less likely to help if others are present.

Robbers Cave study

Intergroup conflict reduced through superordinate goals—shared goals requiring cooperation.

Personality

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Character

Moral/ethical aspects of personality.

Temperament

Innate, biologically based tendencies.

Freud's three parts of the mind

Id: Unconscious desires and drives; Ego: Mediates between id and reality; Superego: Internalized ideals and morals.

Psychosexual stages

Oral (0-18 months): Pleasure centers on mouth.

Oral Stage

Pleasure centers on mouth (0-18 months).

Anal Stage

Focus on control (potty training) (18-36 months).

Phallic Stage

Oedipus/Electra complex (3-6 years).

Latency Stage

Dormant sexual feelings (6-puberty).

Genital Stage

Mature sexual interests (puberty+).

Fixation

Getting stuck in a stage of development.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious tactics to reduce anxiety (e.g., repression, denial, projection).

Collective Unconscious

Concept by Jung referring to shared memories and archetypes.

Striving for Superiority

Concept by Adler emphasizing the drive to overcome feelings of inferiority.

Basic Anxiety

Concept by Horney describing anxiety stemming from childhood helplessness.

Psychosocial Stages

Concept by Erikson outlining development through various life stages.

Behaviorism

Theory that personality is shaped by environment and reinforcement.

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura's theory that personality is influenced by interaction of behavior, personal factors, and environment.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed.

Self-Actualization

Maslow's concept of reaching one's fullest potential.

Real Self

Actual perception of characteristics according to Rogers.

Ideal Self

Who you want to be according to Rogers.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting someone without conditions.

Conditional Positive Regard

Acceptance only if certain standards are met.

Fully Functioning Person

Self-actualized and in harmony with self.

Trait Theory

Theory that personality consists of broad, enduring traits.

Surface Traits

Observable behaviors.

Source Traits

Deeper traits that underlie behavior.

Big Five Traits

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Trait-Situation Interaction

Behavior depends on both traits and situation.

Twin Studies

Research showing genetic influence on personality.

Heritability

Degree to which traits are inherited.

Personality Inventory

Questionnaire for assessing traits.

Halo Effect

One positive trait influences overall judgment.

Projective Tests

Ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach, TAT).

Comorbidity

Co-occurrence of disorders.

Etiology

Cause of disorder.

Risk Factors

Increase likelihood of disorder.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Persistent, excessive worry.

Panic Disorder

Sudden, intense panic attacks.

Phobia

Irrational fear.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Obsessions (thoughts) and compulsions (actions).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Trauma-related symptoms (flashbacks, avoidance).

Major Depression

Persistent sadness, loss of interest.

Bipolar Disorder

Mood swings from depression to mania.

Mania

Elevated mood, hyperactivity, impulsivity.

Bipolar I Disorder

Full manic episodes.

Bipolar II Disorder

Hypomania and major depression.

Dissociative Disorders

Involve disruptions in identity or memory.

Dissociative Amnesia

Memory loss.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Multiple identities.

Schizophrenia

Disorder characterized by hallucinations and delusions.

Personality Disorders

Persistent maladaptive patterns.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Lack of empathy, disregard for others.

Borderline Personality Disorder

Instability in mood and relationships.

Anorexia

Starvation, fear of gaining weight.

Bulimia

Bingeing and purging.

Binge-Eating Disorder

Bingeing without purging.

Reverse Anorexia/Body Dysmorphia

Obsession with perceived flaws.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Communication/social deficits, repetitive behaviors.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity.

Intellectual Disability

Below-average intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.