UK Politics revision (and start of US), Democracy in the UK, Key elections and statistics, Landmark rulings/cases US and UK, Party structures

Since 1900, approximately what fraction of the period have CON been in government?

2/3rds

Four main strands of CON development/ideas

-One-nation

-Butskellite pragmatism and consensus

-Traditional values

-Thatcherism

One-nation conservatism

-Disraeli: 'The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy'

-Privelege and wealth inequality are natural but with them comes duty/responsibility

-Unite the nation through moderate social reforms and patriotism

>Cameron's 'Big Society'

Butskellite pragmatism and consensus

-Shift to the centre following 1945 LAB landslide + reforms

-Through 1950s and 1960s, large areas of consensus between LAB and CON

>E.g. acceptance of the welfare state

-Pro-EEC and Common Market (later EU)

Traditional Values

-Reflects CON ongoing emphasis on the nuclear family, institution of marriage and a firm line on immigration

-E.g. Sunak 2024 'A man is a man and a woman is a woman'

-Section 28 1988

-May (when Home Sec) promise to make the UK a 'hostile environment' for illegal immigrants

-In its more extreme form, it has been criticised for embracing elements of racism, e.g. Enoch Powell's 'Rivers of Blood' speech 1968

Thatcherism

-Far more ideological than any of the other forms of conservatism

>Represented conviction over compromise

-Sought to promote individual freedom

>'Roll back the frontiers of the state'

-To slay the 'dragons' of overly powerful trade unions

>E.g. in the 1984-5 miners' strike

2024 CON manifesto examples of One-nation conservatism

-Emphasis on patriotism and social cohesion through National Service

2024 CON manifesto examples of Butskellite consensus

-Promise to recruit over 90,000 more nurses into NHS

-Cap on social care costs

2024 CON manifesto examples of traditional values

-Promise to continue the Rwanda scheme

-Banning the teaching of gender identity in schools

2024 CON manifesto examples of Thatcherism

-Tax cuts e.g. National Insurance

-'Help to buy scheme' offering GVMT-backed mortgages to help young people buy first homes

>Very similar to Thatcher's 'Right to buy' scheme which allowed council house tenants to purchase their homes at discounted rates

When was Clause IV adopted into LAB constitution?

1918

Reflected Party aspiration to abolish capitalism and redistribute wealth

Key LAB principles and values

-Economic socialism

-Trade Unionism

-Globalist internationalism

-New Labour/Third Way socialism

Economic socialism

-Attlee's establishment of the welfare state

-Nationalisation and state control

>E.g. iron, steel industries (Attlee)

-Reflects commitment to put people before private profit

-Advent of Thatcher privatising most of these industries (and acceptance by Blair and Brown)

-Corbyn promised some partial renationalisation

Trade unionism

-Labour was founded by a collection of trade unions; ties with unions go back to its foundations

-Unions look to Labour to further the rights of workers

-Trade unions typically supply the bulk of Labour's funding, sponsored MPs and had seats on the national executive

-Influence waned in 1980s and 1990s- particularly through deindustrialisation and a shift in the economy away from manufacturing

>Weakened by Thatcher's reforms making it harder to take industrial action

>Blair/Brown did not reverse these

-Influence under Corbyn increased, though decreased under Starmer

-By 2020, only 12 unions were affiliated with LAB

Globalist internationalism

-International commitment to peace and disarmament

>LAB first PM, MacDonald was a pacifist during WWI

-Traditionally strong anti-nuclear weapons espec. grassroots

>Though has been formal policy e.g. 1983 manifesto

-Fighting international causes e.g. against Apartheid in South Africa

-Reflects socialist view of solidarity across national boundaries and opposition to staunch nationalism

>This has been supported modern-day by support for EU integration (though Corbyn less so)

-This strand was weakened by Blair in Iraq

>He was called a warmonger by the left

>Starmer on Gaza

New Labour/Third Way socialism (development of Labour principles/values)

-Move to the centre

-Acceptance of Thatcherite economic policies but retaining emphasis on justice and fairness for all in social policy

-Less concern over who owned industry and more on how profits could be put to use to achieve social justice

-More spending on NHS and 'Educationx3'

-Perhaps the inverse of butskellite consensus?

-Corbyn was the most frequent backbench rebel

-Removal/rewriting of Clause IV in 1995

2024 LAB manifesto examples of economic socialism

-Establishment of GB Energy

-Private school VAT

-Nationalisation of railways

-Increase minimum wage

2024 LAB manifesto examples of trade unionism

-Employment Rights Bill

-Promise to repeal 2016 Trade Union Act which made it harder to take industrial action

>Same in 2019

2024 LAB manifesto examples of globalist internationalism

-Commitment to increased aid into Gaza

-Commitment to aid to Ukraine

>Although this, alongside the decision to increase defence spending at the cost of domestic welfare cuts is less popular with many left-wing LAB MPs, even though it is to fight a dictator

2024 LAB manifesto examples of third way socialism

-Promise to not increase Income Tax or Corporation Tax

-Promise to increase spending on public services e.g. NHS and Education

2019 LAB manifesto examples of economic socialism

-Raise minimum wage

-VAT on private schools

-Abolish tuition fees

-Renationalisation of several major industries e.g. water industry, energy, Royal Mail, railways

How did the Liberals become a 3rd party?

-Originally CON main opponents

>Gladstone PM 4 times

-Rise of LAB from 1910s meant LAB took the working class vote and CON took middle-class voters scared of socialism

How did the Liberal Democrats form?

-Formed in 1988.

-Social Democratic Party (formed by centrist LAB MPs (and one CON)) merged with Liberal Party

-SDP were wary of LAB's move to the left and commitment to withdrawing from EEC

What was the 1983 LAB manifesto described as for being too left wing?

'The longest suicide note in history'

Key principles and values of the Liberal Democrats

-Strong commitment to Europe/EU

-Constitutional reform (especially voting system and federalism)

-Emphasis on human rights/freedoms

-Social liberalism/progressivism

-Environmentalism

2019 LIBDEM manifesto example of commitment to Europe

-Pledge to stop the Brexit process completely

2024 LIBDEM manifesto example of commitment to Europe

-Pledge to re-enter European single market

-Continued push for European re-integration, particularly in extending the youth mobility scheme

2024 LIBDEM manifesto example of desire for constitutional reform and federalism

-Introduce PR (STV); though one wonders if this might change following their impressive 72 seats at last election

-Implement a written constitution for a Federal UK

-Make the Lords elected

2024 LIBDEM manifesto example of environmentalism

-Advancing the Net-zero target

-Investing in green infrastructure

2024 LIBDEM manifesto example of social liberalism/progressivism

-Enhanced carer protections/rights

-Affordable housing initiatives

-Legal recognition of non-binary identity

-Simplification of legal process for gender recognition

2024 LIBDEM manifesto example of human rights and civil liberties

-Reform of legal aid rights to become more accessible to those in need

-Integration of several UN conventions on Human Rights into UK law

How many seats did Libdems win in 2019 vs 2024

11 seats in 2019, 72 in 2024

Local level structure of CON party

Local Conservative Associations, sometimes with council ward branches below them

Local level structures of the LAB party

Each constituency has a Constituency Labour Party (CLP)

Many have ward level Branch Labour Parties (BLP) too

Local level structure of LibDems

-Has local branches

-More focus on organisation along federal lines

>Separate national parties

Local level policy-making systems of the CON party

-Local Conservative Associations play a key role in organising grassroots of the party

-They also plan local campaigning, selecting candidates (though with less autonomy in the latter than previously)

Local level policy-making systems of the LAB party

CLP takes the lead in local and national election campaigns

Local level policy making systems of the LibDems

-Local branches take main role in running constituency level campaigns

-Local branches can submit motions to conference for debate

National level structure of CON party

-National HQ is Conservative Campaign Headquarters (CCHQ) in Westminster

-Day-to-day running of the party is undertaken by the Board of the Conservative Party

>Comprised of representatives from each section of the party

>>MPs, Local associations and (though only 3 members) grassroots party

-Grassroots party structures are overseen by the Annual Convention

National level structure of the LAB party

-Day to day running of the party is undertaken by the National Executive Committee (NEC)

-NEC enforce party discipline, and can expel members for breaking party rules

-NEC has the final say over selection of parliamentary candidates

-Comprised of around 40 members, including representatives from parliamentary party, affiliated unions, CLPs, councillors, young Labour

-Elections to the NEC are highly factionalised

>By-elections for two CLP positions on the NEC 2020 were seen as victory for new leader Starmer as moderate candidates backed by moderate groups triumphed over Corbynite candidates

National level structure of the Liberal Democrats

-Federal Board (FB) is the national governing body

-It consists of 35 voting members including:

>Party president (who chairs it)

>Party leader and 3 other parliamentary representatives

>Chairs of 3 national parties

>A councillor

>A Young Liberals representative

>15 directly elected party members (elected by other members)

National level policy-making systems of the CON party

-Conservative Policy Forum established in 1998 to enable more grassroots participation in policy-making

-Advisory rather than binding role

-In general, Tories have left the writing of their manifesto to their leader and advisors

-1992 John Major boasted the manifesto 'it was all me'

-2019 much of the manifesto co-written by Rachel Wolf (an advisor who served under Cameron's premiership)

When was the Conservative Policy Forum established to enable more grassroots participation in policy-making?

1998

National level policy-making systems of the LAB party

Until the 1990s, the annual conference was the sovereign policy-making body, but its role has since diminished (particularly under Blair's leadership)

National level policy-making systems of the Liberal Democrats

-Largely replicates the party's federal structure

-Motions debated and passed at national conference become national party policy

>Regional conferences set policy that only affects their area

-Policies that affect the whole of the UK or just England are voted on by the Liberal Democrat Federal Conference

Traditionally, how were parties viewed in terms of the role of their members?

-CON traditionally the most top-down with a dominant leader

>Still the least scope for membership participation

>Though they have moved towards slightly more internal democracy- ordinary party members now (rather than MPs) have the final say in a leadership election

-LAB traditionally the most bottom-up with powerful local organisations

>LAB become more centralised since Blair

In reality, which party is the most open and internally democratic of the three?

Liberal Democrats

How many stages do each of the three main parties' candidate selection process have?

3

CON party candidate selection

-All aspiring candidates must pass a Parliamentary Assessment Board

>Tests skills e.g. communication and leadership

-Once on the party's central list, they must apply to be shortlisted as the Prospective Party Candidate (PPC) by local branches

-They must then pass a vote of local party members

All of the three main parties' candidate selection process is similar. What are the three main stages?

1. Candidates must get onto the party's central list of approved candidates after going through a vetting procedure

2. Once on the central list, they must apply to be shortlisted as the Prospective Parliamentary Candidate (PPC) by local branches

3. Finally, must pass a vote of local party members

Examples of parties recently increasing diversity of candidates through the selection process

-LAB use of all-women shortlists

-CON use of open primaries (e.g. in Gosport)

Examples of the central party imposing candidate shortlists on local party branches

-CON accused of this in Bridgend 2017

-LAB NEC accused of 'fast-tracking' favoured candidates (such as in Ealing North) in 2019

-It was argued this undermined local parties having democratic influence

What similarities do the three main parties share in their leadership election process?

-All have two-stage system

-Candidates must first be nominated by a certain number of MPs/local parties

-Final choice made by party members/registered supporters (LAB)

CON leadership election: Selection by MPs

-MPs vote in a series of ballots to narrow the choice down to two names

>E.g. 6 candidates entered in 2024 election, eventually narrowed down to Badenoch and Jenrick

LAB leadership elections: Selection by MPs

-Candidates have to secure the backing of at least 10% of MPs and either:

> 5% constituency parties

OR

> At least 3 affiliates (where two must be trade unions)

-In 2020, only Starmer and 3 others secured sufficient affiliate support

LIBDEM leadership elections: Selection by MPs

-Candidates must gain support of at least 10% other LibDem MPs and at least 200 members from more than 20 local parties

CON leadership elections: Election by party members

-Party members have the final say between the two candidates on a OMOV basis

-2024, Badenoch secured over 55% members' vote

OMOV

one member one vote

LAB leadership elections: Election by party members

-Party members and registered supporters vote on an OMOV basis, using AV to make the final choice

-Because Starmer won over 50% votes in the first round in 2020, there was no need for a second round under AV

LIBDEM leadership elections: Election by party members

-Members vote on an OMOV basis using AV to make the final choice

-2020, Ed Davey won over 60% of vote in round one, so there was no need for a second round under AV

Which party uses the same process to elect deputy leaders as their leaders?

Labour

Example of a leader being unopposed in a leadership election

Sunak in 2022, following the entire Truss premiership on the backbenches

Why is it important to have a balance between ordinary members participating in candidate selection/leadership election and central filtering?

-If they are not involved, they may become disillusioned and less willing to campaign for the party

HOWEVER

-Grassroots members tend to be more extreme than ordinary voters, leading to candidates that are electorally inept/damaging

>It can be argued that Corbyn was one such example

>>David Miliband (ex- LAB Foreign Secretary) called him 'unelectable'

What % of the country felt LAB were fit to govern in comparison to CON in 2024? (ipsos, YouGov)

30% LAB

15% CON

What % of the country felt LAB could be trusted on the economy in comparison to CON in 2024? (ipsos, YouGov)

30% LAB

20% CON

What % of the country felt Starmer was 'trustworthy' in comparison to Sunak in 2024? (ipsos, YouGov)

STARMER 45%

SUNAK 30%

Public bill committees

Committees responsible for looking at bills in detail.

The three 'U's of the UK Constitution

-Uncodified (derived from many sources)

-Un-entrenched (Flexible and can be changed)

-Unitary (parliament holds all power)

Twin Pillars

Parliamentary sovereignty and the rule of law

Who came up with the 'twin pillars'?

A.V. Dicey

Parliamentary Sovereignty

-Parliament can make or repeal any act

-No other body can overrule parliament

-No parliament can bind its successors

Rule of Law

principle that the law applies to everyone, even those who govern- inevitably clashes with parliamentary sovereignty

main sources of the UK constitution

- Statute law

- Common law

- The royal prerogative

- Conventions

- Works of authority

- International agreements

Common Law

a system of law based on precedent and customs

e.g. no law making murder a criminal offence, but statute laws dealing with the punishment for murder

Royal prerogative

Powers in the name of Crown

e.g. power to seek dissolution/prorogation of parliament

-ceremonial

-Johnson 2019 prorogation

Conventions

-Unwritten rules/procedures generally concerned with parliament

-Formal invitation by monarch to form a government

-Leader of party with most seats formally asked

>had Cameron not formed coalition with lindens, monarch would have asked Brown

Why are conventions rarely broken?

-It often leads to deadlock

-Salisbury-Addison Convention 1945, now lords do not block/delay bills in a party's manifesto

When was the last time royal assent was denied?

1707, Queen Anne refused to sign Scottish Militia Bill

Works of Authority

Writings of experts which describe constitutional practice and procedures

A.V. Dicey's Intro to the study of the law of the Constitution

The Cabinet Manual (2010)- guide for the first coalition government in over 60 years

International Agreements

-Government is obliged to adhere to the terms of international agreements they have signed

e.g. ECHR

Statute Law

A law or act passed by government

e.g. Representation of the People Act 1969 defined rights of UK citizens

Has the British Constitution become more democratic over time?

-Magna Carta (just the Barons and King John)

-Bill of Rights 1689

-Act of Settlement 1701

-Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949

-European Communities Act 1972

Bill of Rights 1689

A bill passed by Parliament and accepted by William and Mary that limited the powers of British monarchs and affirmed those of Parliament.

e.g. parliamentary privilege

Act of Settlement 1701

No Catholic could be king of England- Not democratic

Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949

-Acts limiting the Lords' power

-1909 removed lords' veto

1949- Lords could only delay a bill for 1 year after a modification of the Act

More democratic but still not truly as Lords still unelected

When was the Life Peerages Act?

1958

European Communities Act 1972

Act of Parliament led the UK to join the European Economic Community, and made all UK law 'subject to' directly applicable European law

Arguably infringed on Parliamentary sovereignty

Valence

voting on the perceived competence of a party

Modernisation of political institutions

-HoL Act 1999 removed all but 92 hered. peers

-Constitutional Reform Act 2005 separated Supreme Court from Law Lords

-Succession to the Crown Act 2013 allowed eldest child to ascend regardless of gender

-HoL Reform Act 2014 allowed peers to resign/retire from their seats (Lloyd-Webber) and the removal of peers convicted of srs crime offences

Greater democracy in the political system acts

-Referendums Act 1997 gave Scotland and Wales referendums on whether to have devolved assemblies

-Greater London Authority Act allowed direct election of Mayor of London

-2011 Fixed-term Parliaments Act (FTPA)

Fixed-term Parliaments Act of 2011

This Act of Parliament guaranteed that an election would be held every five years, unless certain circumstances

PMs can only call GE with 2/3rds parliament support

Aimed to protect LibDems from Tories ditching them when polls were favourable

Generally overridden as opposition leaders support calls for general elections so not to be seen as 'political cowards'

Bypassed by the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019

Forms of Constitutional Reforms (UK)

-Modernisation of political institutions

-Greater democracy in political system

-Devolution

-Human Rights

'good chaps' theory

-Relies on politicians doing the right thing

Heavy relied upon by Conventions

Human Rights Act 1998

Incorporated the ECHR into UK law

Allowed UK courts to take ECHR into account when judging HR cases

Equality Act 2010

Protects people from discrimination in the workplace and in wider society. It sets out the different ways in which it is unlawful to treat someone.

Data Protection Act 2018

Aims to protect the rights of the owners of data

Controls on handling of personal data by government and private bodies

Freedom of Information Act 2000

- Public Services are required to publish information under this Act

- Members of the public can request information under this Act

e.g. BBC request for local councils to say how many they recorded were sleeping rough 2019

2012 British Academy report on ECtHR

-1996-2012, around 14.5 000 cases from UK citizens to ECtHR

-UK government only found in breach of convention in just over 1% of cases

Why does the Constitution struggle to protect rights?

-Lack of entrenchment (we could withdraw from ECHR)

-Current framework open to political attack (Tory calls for 'British Bill of Rights')

-ECtHR judgments against UK policies spark media attacks

-Brexit removed safety net for certain non-discrimination/labour/migrant rights under EU law

-Passing of anti-terror laws dilutes protections

Bull v Hall 2013

-The Bulls refused to allow same sex couple to share a double room in their hostel

-The Bulls fought for their individual rights to refuse customers because of their faith

-The couple fought for the protection of LGBTQ rights