cognitive - ERQ definitions

memory

memory is the cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

wmm

explains short-term memory as a system with multiple components, each with specific functions.

core of the wmm

the central executive directs attention and manages the operations of its sub-systems. It can focus, divide, and switch attention but has limited capacity and is modality-free, processing both auditory and visual information.

phonological loop

The phonological loop, or verbal STM, consists of the articulatory control system (inner voice) and the phonological store (inner ear), handling auditory information and verbal sequences.

visuospatial sketchpad

The visuospatial sketchpad, or inner eye, deals with visual and spatial data, aiding in the manipulation and recall of visual patterns and spatial movements.

episodic buffer

To integrate information from these components to long-term memory, the episodic buffer temporarily holds and combines data, facilitating our understanding of complex, multimodal experiences.

schema theory

Schema theory explains how the human mind processes and organizes information based on prior experiences and knowledge.

multi store model

msm model argues that memory is a sequential and linear process. it involves sensory mem, STM, and LTM.

MSM sensory memory

Sensory memory is any information provided by the five senses. It is very limited in capacity and duration. However, if sensory information is attended to or considered important, it is coded and sent to STM.

MSM STM

STM has a capacity of 7 units (+-2) and also has a small duration.

MSM LTM

If STM information is rehearsed, it is recorded and transferred to LTM, which has an unlimited capacity and duration.

how MSM explains the process of mem

The MSM explains this memory process by beginning with the environment as the input. This input is placed into sensory memory, where attention to the information sends it to STM. Information in STM can be recalled. The rehearsal of this information transfers it to LTM, where it can be retrieved back from STM.

schemas

Schemas are mental frameworks that enable us to rapidly process all the information we have seen before, thus alleviating the need to reprocess an object each time we see it. They are derived from prior knowledge and experience and are affected by culture and social background.

what schema does

They organize information in memory, make information processing more efficient, allow people to generate expectations, regulate behavior, and are usually slow to change.

existing schema

Existing schema is modified through Assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process where new information is fit it into our existing schema even if it means modifying the information to match pre-existing beliefs. Accommodation involves Altering our existing schema as a result of new information or new experiences. People can also create a new schema if none already exists

types of schemas

Scripts Provide information about common events. Self-Schemas organize information we have about ourselves. Social Schemas Organize information we have about groups of people

affect of schema theory

schemas often fill in gaps based on existing schemas. this can lead to memory distortion and false predictions.

reconstructive memory

Reconstructive memory refers to the idea that remembering the past reflects our attempts to reconstruct the events experienced previously. This concept suggests that when individuals retrieve memories, they unconsciously fill in gaps with details based on schemas, which are mental frameworks that help interpret and organize information. it also involves the misinformation effect, which is when post-event information facilitates schema processing which may influence the accuracy of recall.

flashbulb memory

refers to a vivid, highly detailed, and long-lasting memory of an emotionally significant and surprising event. Flashbulb memories are believed to be triggered by emotional arousal and unexpectedness, making them distinct from ordinary memories. They are thought to be resistant to forgetting due to the intense emotional and personal significance of the event.

true experiment

A true experiment can be defined as a study that takes place in a highly controlled environment, such as a laboratory. In a true experiment, the researcher tests a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable and measuring a dependent variable. Participants are randomly allocated to each condition of the experiment and the procedures are highly standardized to ensure reliability. A true experiment is valuable as it can establish cause-and-effect relationships by controlling extraneous variables.

quasi-experiment

a research design in which the iv is not manipulated by the researcher, and participants are not randomly assigned to experimental conditions. Instead, they are grouped based on pre-existing characteristics or natural events. Because random allocation is not possible, quasi-experiments do not establish direct causation, but they can suggest a correlation between the IV and dv. Quasi-experiments are useful for studying variables that cannot be ethically or practically manipulated

interview

used to gather detailed information from participants through direct questioning. Structured interviews follow a strict set of pre-determined questions, Unstructured interviews are more flexible, Semi-structured interviews balance structure and flexibility, Interviews can be one-on-one or conducted in focus groups. these encourage discussion but may lead to conformity effects, where participants agree with dominant voices in the group. researchers must be mindful of how interviewer effects may influence responses. Additionally, social desirability bias can occur, where participants give responses they believe are more socially acceptable rather than truthful ones.

deception

deception refers to the practice of intentionally misleading or withholding information from participants about the true purpose of a study. This is often done to prevent demand characteristics. Deception is only considered permissible if it is necessary for the validity of the research, it does not cause significant harm or distress to participants, and if articipants are debriefed at the end of the study.

undue stress or harm

ensures participants are not exposed to excessive physical or psychological distress beyond what they would normally experience in their daily lives. Researchers must take steps to minimize harm and provide support if participants experience distress. To avoid undue stress or harm, researchers should ensure participants can withdraw at any time, Provide support such as counseling, and Debrief participants and check on their well-being after the study.

thinking

the process of using knowledge and information to make plans interpret the world, and make predictions

decision-making

the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker. needed in problem-solving to reach conclusions. Different circumstances require different types of thinking - dual process model.

system 1

automatic, intuitive, effortless - “fast thinking”

heuristic, usually uses shortcuts

creates a feeling of being correct

used especially when our cognitive load is high

prone to errors

system 2

slow, conscious, rational

requires more effort

useful in abstract tasks and situations

careful consideration

why things happen, what happens next, possible options

LESS certainty and confidence

both systems in use

both are always operating. s1 runs automatically and s2 is in the background until needed.

s1 occurs first and comes to a quick conclusion, s2 comes in and further analyzes to lead to a “more correct” conclusion

heuristics

simple, efficient rules or mental shortcuts that allow people to quickly make decisions and solve problems, but does not always lead to the best outcome.

cognitive bias

The system 1 process relies on cognitive biases which are based on heuristics. they are a limitation in our thinking that can cause us to make faulty judgments. they become a consistent but inaccurate pattern

anchoring bias

the tendency to over-rely on the first piece of information received when making decisions.