chapter 2 flashcards

common sense

the intuitive ability to understand the world

often wrong or even self-contradictory

rationalism

view that using logic and reason is the way to understand how the world works

the limits of observation

• the senses can be easily fooled

• what one person sees does not always square with what another person sees

• what you can see at a glance may be different than what you can see with measuring tools

• one should not generalize from a limited set of observations

scientific thinking

using the cognitive skills required to generate, test and revise theories

replication

the repetition of a study to confirm results (essential to the scientific process)

scientific method

the procedures by which scientists conduct research

observation, prediction, testing, interpretation, communication, replication

OPTICR

reliability

the test or measure gives us a consistent result over time or between different observers

validity

when a scientist claims to measure a particular concept, he or she really is measuring that concept and not something else

research designs

plans of action for how to conduct a scientific study

variable

anything that changes, or “varies,” within or between individuals

population

the entire group about whom you have a research question

sample

the portion of a populations that is actually observed

descriptive design

defines a problem and variable of interest but makes no prediction and does not control or manipulate anything

case study

a psychologist observes one person over a long period of time

naturalistic observations

the researcher unobtrusively observes and records behavior in the real world

qualitative research

involves data gathered from open-ended and unstructured answers

interviews

one person asks questions and the others answer, usually in open-ended answers

quantitative research

collects information using any kind of numeric and quantifiable scale, often with limited response options

correlational designs

measures two or more variables and their relationship to one another

correlation coefficients

statistics that range from -1.0 to +1.0 and assess the strength and direction of association between two variables

experiment

includes independent and dependent variables and random assignments of participants to both control and experimental groups or conditions

independent variable

a property that is manipulated under controlled conditions

dependent variable

the outcome or response

random assignment

all participants have the same change of being in any specific group

experimental group

participants who will receive the treatment or whatever is predicted to change behavior

control group

treated in the same manner as the experimental groups but do not receive the treatment

placebo

treatment that appears identical to the actual treatment but lacks the active substance (usually a sugar pill)

longitudinal studies

research that includes observations of the same people over time (ranging from months to decades, usually combines observational, correlational, and quasi-experimental techniques)

gene-environment interaction research

studies heritability by comparing genetic markers

identical twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two independent cells

fraternal twins

develop from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm

self-reports

written or oral accounts of a person’s own thoughts, feelings, or actions

social desirability bias

one problem with self-reports in which people present themselves inaccurately for fear of looking bad

behavioral measures

based on systematic observation of people’s actions (either in their normal environment or in a laboratory setting, less susceptible to social desirability bias, and provides more objective measurements)

physiological measures

measures of bodily responses to determine change in psychological states

ethics

the rules governing the conduct of a group or in a specific situation (standards of right and wrong)

plagiarism

when someone presents the words or ideas of other people as their own

falsification

changing, altering, or deleting data

fabrication

presenting or publishing scientific results that are made up

debriefing

the process of explaining the purposes of a study to research participants FOLLOWING data collection

institutional review boards (IRBs)

organization to evaluate research proposals to make sure the research will not cause undue harm or distress